-
Title
-
Cities and Sustainable Development
-
Author
-
Cusack, Christopher
-
Research Area
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Social Processes
-
Topic
-
Urbanization
-
Abstract
-
When considering the future of the world, one must first and foremost consider the future of its cities. Cities are currently home to more than half the world's population and are projected to encompass the preponderance of all future population growth. Cities also require vast inputs of energy and resources while producing vast outputs of waste. Recognition that these trends are not sustainable has generated a wealth of relevant research. How cities can be sustainably developed in such a way that meets present needs without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their own needs is the critical problem to solve. Research in a myriad of fields, including sociology, political science, economics, and geography, is active in its pursuit of the sustainable city. This essay explains the components of sustainable development and underscores the connection between sustainability and cities. Foundational research, which primarily takes a regional approach to urban analysis, is then explored. This, then, is followed by cutting‐edge research that highlights new ways to measure sustainability and new efforts to build sustainable cities. The essay concludes with an examination of some of the key issues for future research, including the need to consider the cultural diversity within and between cities, as well ways to generate sustainability through pioneering efforts of planning and governance.
-
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-
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Evolutionary Perspectives on Animal and Human Personality (Anthropology), Joseph H. Manson and Lynn A. Fairbanks
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Identifier
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etrds0040
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extracted text
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Cities and Sustainable Development
CHRISTOPHER CUSACK
Abstract
When considering the future of the world, one must first and foremost consider the
future of its cities. Cities are currently home to more than half the world’s population
and are projected to encompass the preponderance of all future population growth.
Cities also require vast inputs of energy and resources while producing vast outputs
of waste. Recognition that these trends are not sustainable has generated a wealth
of relevant research. How cities can be sustainably developed in such a way that
meets present needs without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs is the critical problem to solve. Research in a myriad of fields, including
sociology, political science, economics, and geography, is active in its pursuit of the
sustainable city. This essay explains the components of sustainable development and
underscores the connection between sustainability and cities. Foundational research,
which primarily takes a regional approach to urban analysis, is then explored. This,
then, is followed by cutting-edge research that highlights new ways to measure sustainability and new efforts to build sustainable cities. The essay concludes with an
examination of some of the key issues for future research, including the need to
consider the cultural diversity within and between cities, as well ways to generate
sustainability through pioneering efforts of planning and governance.
INTRODUCTION
Global population trends portend the need for rigorous research agendas
that address the causes and consequences of an increasingly urbanized
world. Efforts to predict the immediate and the long-term consequences of
such urbanization as well as to explain the rapid concentration of the world’s
population into cities have helped foster new and innovative approaches
to urban design and analysis. Oriented around the call for sustainable
development, these research endeavors have recently taken on a new sense
of urgency. The year 2008, a watershed year in the history of humankind,
marked the first time ever the majority of humans could be classified
as “urban” as opposed to “rural.” The growth of cities, in terms of area,
population size, resource consumption, and environmental degradation,
is undoubtedly among the most pressing challenges of the twenty-first
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.
1
2
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
century. Without question, any discussion of sustainable development must
first and foremost take place at the city level.
First identified in the 1987 United Nations publication Our Common Future,
sustainable development has been identified as “development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.” The goal of sustainable development is oriented
around the “three E’s” of environmental protection, economic growth, and
social equity. However, as these elements remain frequently undefined or
even contradictory, there remains a pressing need for a holistic agenda of
research and practical application. Such a research agenda must account for
both place and culture, as a one-size-fits-all approach will likely do more
harm than good. With the growth of many cities of the global south at near
exponential rates, and with untenable consumption patterns in the urbanized
north, any new approach to sustainable development must be place-specific
and city-oriented.
Research into the nexus between cities and sustainable development has
evolved from thinking of “green cities” as those with ample open space
and parks to a broader analytical approach concerned with a balance
between environment, economy, and equity. Urban sustainability involves
inquiry from a myriad of disciplines, including sociology, political science,
economics, geography, planning, and architecture, among others. While
each discipline has heretofore independently provided contributions to the
concept of urban sustainability, more recent and cross-disciplinary research
is providing promising opportunities for truly sustainable development.
This entry, then, highlights the oft unsustainable growth of cities, examines
the more recent efforts to measure urban sustainability, and identifies
prospective approaches aimed at providing universal means to achieving
the sustainable city.
FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
Although cities of the world are projected to continue experience very different trends in terms of population growth and economic performance, cities
from both the global north and south are similarly affecting resources and
the environment and would benefit from sustainable urban development.
Research into the ways in which cities may be deemed unsustainable are
ubiquitous and typically highlight environmental problems associated with
urban growth. For example, the urban heat island effect, whereby the average
temperatures of cities may typically run 3.3–4.4∘ C (6–8∘ F) warmer than their
rural environs, has received significant attention. Increases in anthropogenic
heat and emissions of atmospheric pollutants, in tandem with decreases in
natural vegetation, form distinct islands of heat surrounded by countryside
Cities and Sustainable Development
3
of cooler temperatures. Continued unsustainable growth and sprawl of cities
will only serve to exacerbate this heat island effect, impacting both urban
populations and climates.
Cities also are noted for their disparate consumption of resources, waste
generation, and pollution output. Researchers such as Jo Beall and Sean Fox
(2007, p. 4) have pointed out that while urban areas cover only two percent of the earth’s land, they demand nearly three-quarters of all natural
resources consumed in a given year. As a result, much research along the
lines of sustainable development is oriented around the concept of the “ecological footprint,” which measures the amount of land needed to support a
city. Previous studies have estimated that cities around the world far exceed
the sustainable footprint of 4.5 acres per person. London, for example, has an
ecological footprint that is calculated to be upward of 300 times larger than its
land area. Strains on resources and the environment are therefore hallmarks
of cities around the world, although for differing reasons. In the developed
North, cities continue to demonstrate low-density sprawl and automobile
dependency. In the developing South, urban population growth far exceeds
existing infrastructure, jobs, and housing, leaving people to live in dreadful conditions. Thus, while the causes are varying, the results are similarly
unsustainable cities around the world.
CITIES OF THE GLOBAL SOUTH
Future growth of cities around the world is to be far from uniform, with virtually all urban expansion occurring in the less developed world of the global
South. Already many of the megacities of the South have populations that
rival entire countries of the North. For instance, at 23 million inhabitants, the
city of Shanghai, China, has a larger population than the continent of Australia. Likewise, the combined population of the Indian cities of Mumbai and
Delhi exceeds the total population of Canada. The Economist Intelligence
Unit (2011, p. 8) projects that in just over a decade, China will have approximately 225 cities with at least one million residents—or 200 more cities of
this size than Europe has at the present time. At all levels of the population
spectrum, cities of the global South are experiencing exceptional and unsustainable growth.
Research into these cities generally concentrates on the “brown agenda”
of economic growth and job creation. With millions of people being added
yearly to these already overburdened cities, priority is indeed given to
efforts that seek to alleviate poverty and generate prosperity. The link
between local knowledge and outside expertise and by the role played
by nongovernmental organizations has been at the very foundation of
research in cities of this world realm. Environmental concerns, although not
4
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
disregarded, are superseded by the goal of meeting basic human needs. As
following the Industrial Revolution when countries of the North grew prosperous at the cost of severe environmental degradation, cities of the South
are now seeking the same path toward wealth creation. This focus is readily
understood in cities such as Nairobi, Kenya, within which approximately
two-thirds of the populace resides in slum settlements. Lacking virtually
any medical care, public sanitation, or potable water, living conditions
are deplorable. Research and practical applications focused on providing
basic necessities of life have inevitably concentrated on poverty reduction
strategies and the economic underpinnings of sustainability.
CITIES OF THE GLOBAL NORTH
In contrast to their southern counterparts, sustainability efforts in the
typically wealthier cities of the global North concentrate more on the “green
agenda” of environmental stewardship. Over the past decade, and typified
by the likes of Berlin, Germany, and Montreal, Canada, most developed
cities have experienced only incremental population growth. Still others,
such as Detroit, Michigan, are noted for outright population decline. With
no concern over any dramatic increases in population, cities of this realm
have placed the environment at the core of their sustainability focus. Yet,
the green agenda remains elusive for most cities and particularly for cities
of the United States. For all the talk about sustainability, the American city
remains hallmarked by low-density development and dependency on the
automobile. As a result, current research agendas necessarily focus on the
relationship between urban form and sustainability while highlighting those
relatively rare U.S. successes.
For the most part, research into cities and sustainable development identifies and assesses examples of sustainability in a sort of patchwork approach
and with a near-singular focus on the environment. For instance, the cooling
effect engendered by painting building rooftops white or covering them with
grass and vegetation receives scholarly attention. Other studies focus on the
greening of cities through the urban commons approach of compact planning, urban gardens, and multimodal transportation. Similarly, the “complete streets” movement aims to produce routes of travel that are convenient
and safe for all users, not just those in the driver’s seat. Still other studies
analyze on the impact of congestion pricing, whereby automobile drivers are
charged more to drive through city centers during peak hours. Indeed, the
attention being paid to the concept of sustainability is evidenced by the fact
that a simple Google search of “sustainable cities” currently generates nearly
1.1 million responses. Yet, while there are innumerable areas of research, a
truly holistic research agenda into the sustainable city remains incomplete.
Cities and Sustainable Development
5
CUTTING EDGE
As cities in the developing world increasingly compete for resources, their
counterparts in the United States and other industrialized nations are being
forced to identify new approaches to urban planning, transportation, and
design. Designing new buildings, and retrofitting existing ones, so that they
meet “green” standards is being pursued so as to reduce energy consumption and therefore the building’s ecological footprint. The green standards
are known as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and are
set by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGB). Originating in the United
States, LEED projects have since been established in more than 135 countries
around the world. Research by Julie Cidell (2009) and others actively monitoring the number of LEED-registered buildings has provided thresholds
and benchmarks through which cities may be rated. This venue for research
is rapidly expanding as the number of registered LEED buildings has risen
from just over a dozen in 2004 to nearly 1100 in 2013. According to the USGB
website, buildings can meet LEED standards through various means. Use of
sustainable building materials and resource- and energy-efficient designs all
contribute to the building’s assessed sustainability.
Further research is examining the growth of other local urban environmental efforts, such as the global growth of ICLEI-Local Governments for
Sustainability. Founded as the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), the organization rebranded itself in 2003 so as
to more adequately reflect its mission of sustainability. Presently, more
than 1200 local governments are members of the organization, with cities
in the United States accounting for nearly one-half of the membership.
The efforts of the ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability, as well as
the USGB, afford opportunity for research into city-by-city comparative
analysis. Other initiatives likewise provide exemplars of sustainability, such
as Sustainable Seattle in the United States or the Sustainable City Award in
Europe. These examples of “best practices” highlighted in the research may
provide opportunity for emulation by other cities.
While no fully sustainable city exists as yet, P. D. Smith (2012, p. 308) and
others are following several developments that may ultimately demonstrate
the feasibility of such a goal. Perhaps the most closely studied project is that
of Masdar City, United Arab Emirates. With its first phase projected to be
finished in 2015, Masdar City is scheduled to be fully operational by 2025
and is to encompass 6 km2 and 45,000 residents. What sets this city apart is
the fact that it will be fully powered by renewable energy sources. Accentuated by the largest solar power plant in the world as well as a geothermal
plant, photovoltaic fields, and wind turbines, Masdar City will stand as the
world’s first carbon-neutral eco-city. Encouragingly, Masdar City is not alone.
6
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Outside of Shanghai, China, the development of a new satellite city named
Dongtan is under way. Also designed to be powered by renewable energy
and largely car-free, Dongtan is ultimately to house upward of half a million
people with an envisioned ecological footprint of just over 2 hectares per person. These examples provide both real-world as well as theoretical avenues
for cutting-edge research into the sustainability of cities.
KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
While much research on the issue of cities and sustainable development
has focused on the problems wrought by urban growth, forward-looking
research is now considering cities as potential solutions to key issues in
sustainability. With their typically higher densities, lower birth rates, and
more efficient resource use than suburban or rural areas, cities offer perhaps
unparalleled opportunities for sustainable living. Certainly not every new
city can be designed, nor every existing city retrofitted, as a Masdar City
or a Dongtan, but innovative steps can be taken to assuage environmental
degradation and resource consumption. While such measures are likely to
add to the costs of doing business, the price of doing nothing may well prove
far more costly. Cost–benefit analyses that adequately capture both the overt
and more intangible elements of sustainability must therefore be further
explored and refined. As cost conscious or cash strapped city governments
increasingly focus on the bottom-line, a straightforward measure of costs
and benefits is all the more necessary to foster sustainable development.
In addition to new economic approaches to development, as well as innovative changes in urban design, there is need for entirely new lines of research.
As noted by E. Eric Boschmann and Mei-Po Kwan (2008, p. 139), the absence
of any major research agenda or any theoretical understanding of sustainable
cities provides a clarion call for the social sciences. New research agendas that
heed such calls and encompass all facets of sustainable development must be
explored. Owing to the fact that sustainability requires modifications in virtually all facets of a city, a universal research agenda drawing from all potentially contributing disciplines is likewise required. Furthermore, key issues
of sustainability must be targeted for more in-depth investigation. Among
the most notable needs for further investigation is the impact of culture and
“sense of place” on a community. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has acknowledged the realm of
sustainable development to encompass economics and the natural sciences
but has also accentuated the fundamental role played by culture. Specifically,
the relationships between people and the values that they hold vary from culture to culture. Design for a sustainable city must therefore display cultural
understanding and reflect cultural sensitivity.
Cities and Sustainable Development
7
One-size-fits all approaches, or heavy handed top-down approaches, are
far less likely to succeed. Instead, future research must identify innovative
ways by which sustainable development initiatives reflect the tremendous
diversity between and even within cities. Sustainability initiatives must truly
reflect the people and areas for which they are designed and must enhance
emotional attachment between people and place. Ways to promote community ties and a strong sense of place that serve to facilitate efforts of sustainability must therefore be central to future research endeavors. These research
lines are likely to encourage promising ventures into sustainability by city
governments and planners, as land-use planning oriented around public participation and designed at the human scale is more likely to engender sustainable communities. Research veins into improved governance will also
facilitate sustainability. The fragmented government structures that exist in
the United States and elsewhere around the world currently serve as a deterrent to sustainable development. Competing governmental structures within
a top-down hierarchy not only hinders coordination but it can also lead to
inefficiency and inequity.
Equity itself is an issue that still has not been adequately addressed in
either research or practical application. While purportedly standing as
one of the three pillars of sustainability, it typically receives only nominal
attention by cities pursuing sustainable development. The same cities that
are active on the green agenda are virtually silent about inequalities in
service provision, public safety, employment opportunity, and a range of
other equity-based issues. Research that provides solutions to such issues
as the jobs-housing imbalance could ultimately be incorporated into a city’s
sustainability agenda and affect meaningful change. Generated through
research that captures public input, these solutions will likely prove far
more soluble than any government directive. Local control and locally based
plans that encapsulate the knowledge and culture of a place are unlikely to
be met with the resistance encountered by a one-size-fits-all mandate from
atop the governmental hierarchy. Therefore, research that is place-oriented
but that takes a holistic approach to sustainability will be the key to success.
Cities are now home to more than half the world’s population, they serve as
the engines of the global economy, and nowhere is the juxtaposition of wealth
and poverty or the environmental impact of development so apparent. When
contemplating the future of the world, one need only contemplate the future
of cities. Although currently unsustainable in form and function, cities paradoxically afford the greatest opportunity for successful sustainable development. Without doubt, pursuit of place-based and community-supported
research agendas that provide new paths toward sustainability should be a
goal for researchers throughout the social and behavioral sciences.
8
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
REFERENCES
Beall, J., & Fox, S. (2007). Urban poverty and development in the 21st century: Towards an
inclusive and sustainable world. Oxford, England: Oxford GB Research Report.
Boschmann, E. E., & Kwan, M. P. (2008). Toward socially sustainable urban transportation: Progress and potentials. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 2, 138–157.
Cidell, J. (2009). Building green: The emerging geography of LEED-certified building
and professionals. The Professional Geographer, 61(2), 200–215.
Economist Intelligence Unit (2011). Asian Green City Index: Assessing the environmental performance of Asia’s major cities. Retrieved from http://www.siemens.com/
entry/cc/features/greencityindex_international/all/de/pdf/report_asia.pdf
Smith, P. D. (2012). City: A guidebook for the urban age. London, England: Bloomsbury.
FUTURE READING
Bell, S., & Morse, S. (2008). Sustainability indicators: Measuring the immeasurable?
London, England: Earthscan.
Bijl, R. (2011). Never waste a good crisis: Towards social sustainable development.
Social Indicators Research, 102, 157–168. doi:10.1007/s11205-0109736-y
Clark, W., III, (2010). Sustainable communities. New York, NY: Springer.
de Vries, B., & Peterson, A. (2009). Conceptualizing sustainable development: An
assessment methodology connecting values, knowledge, worldviews and scenarios. Ecological Economics, 68, 106–1019. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.11.015
Douglas, I., Goode, D., Houck, M., & Wang, R. (Eds.) (2011). The Routledge handbook
of urban ecology. London, England: Routledge.
Platt, R. (Ed.) (2006). The humane metropolis: People and nature in the 21st-century city.
Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
Williams, K. (2010). Sustainable cities: research and practice challenges. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 1(1–2), 128–132. doi:10.1080/
19463131003654863
CHRISTOPHER CUSACK SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Christopher Cusack is Professor of Geography at Keene State College in
Keene, New Hampshire. He earned his MA and PhD from the University
of Akron, Ohio. His teaching responsibilities include courses in urban geography and planning as well as geographic information systems. He has previously published on issues of community planning, urban sustainability, and
regional development. Cusack is past Chair of the Regional Development
and Planning Specialty Group of the Association of American Geographers
from which he has been awarded the Distinguished Scholar Award. Traveling widely, Cusack enjoys photographing cultural and natural variations in
the landscape.
Cities and Sustainable Development
9
RELATED ESSAYS
Neighborhoods and Cognitive Development (Psychology), Jondou Chen and
Jeanne Brooks-Gunn
Evolutionary Perspectives on Animal and Human Personality (Anthropology), Joseph H. Manson and Lynn A. Fairbanks
Sociological Theory After the End of Nature (Sociology), Robert J. Brulle
Theorizing the Death of Cities (Political Science), Peter Eisinger
Causes of Fiscal Crises in State and Local Governments (Political Science),
Vladimir Kogan
Exploring Opportunities in Cultural Diversity (Political Science), David D.
Laitin and Sangick Jeon
Civic Engagement (Sociology), Peter Levine
Modeling Coal and Natural Gas Markets (Economics), Franziska Holz
Politics of Immigration Policy (Political Science), Jeannette Money
Natural Resources and Development (Political Science), Kevin M. Morrison
Economics of Renewable Energy Production (Economics), Gregory F. Nemet
The Politics of Disaster Relief (Political Science), Alexander J. Oliver and
Andrew Reeves
The Social Science of Sustainability (Political Science), Johannes Urpelainen
-
Cities and Sustainable Development
CHRISTOPHER CUSACK
Abstract
When considering the future of the world, one must first and foremost consider the
future of its cities. Cities are currently home to more than half the world’s population
and are projected to encompass the preponderance of all future population growth.
Cities also require vast inputs of energy and resources while producing vast outputs
of waste. Recognition that these trends are not sustainable has generated a wealth
of relevant research. How cities can be sustainably developed in such a way that
meets present needs without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs is the critical problem to solve. Research in a myriad of fields, including
sociology, political science, economics, and geography, is active in its pursuit of the
sustainable city. This essay explains the components of sustainable development and
underscores the connection between sustainability and cities. Foundational research,
which primarily takes a regional approach to urban analysis, is then explored. This,
then, is followed by cutting-edge research that highlights new ways to measure sustainability and new efforts to build sustainable cities. The essay concludes with an
examination of some of the key issues for future research, including the need to
consider the cultural diversity within and between cities, as well ways to generate
sustainability through pioneering efforts of planning and governance.
INTRODUCTION
Global population trends portend the need for rigorous research agendas
that address the causes and consequences of an increasingly urbanized
world. Efforts to predict the immediate and the long-term consequences of
such urbanization as well as to explain the rapid concentration of the world’s
population into cities have helped foster new and innovative approaches
to urban design and analysis. Oriented around the call for sustainable
development, these research endeavors have recently taken on a new sense
of urgency. The year 2008, a watershed year in the history of humankind,
marked the first time ever the majority of humans could be classified
as “urban” as opposed to “rural.” The growth of cities, in terms of area,
population size, resource consumption, and environmental degradation,
is undoubtedly among the most pressing challenges of the twenty-first
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.
1
2
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
century. Without question, any discussion of sustainable development must
first and foremost take place at the city level.
First identified in the 1987 United Nations publication Our Common Future,
sustainable development has been identified as “development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.” The goal of sustainable development is oriented
around the “three E’s” of environmental protection, economic growth, and
social equity. However, as these elements remain frequently undefined or
even contradictory, there remains a pressing need for a holistic agenda of
research and practical application. Such a research agenda must account for
both place and culture, as a one-size-fits-all approach will likely do more
harm than good. With the growth of many cities of the global south at near
exponential rates, and with untenable consumption patterns in the urbanized
north, any new approach to sustainable development must be place-specific
and city-oriented.
Research into the nexus between cities and sustainable development has
evolved from thinking of “green cities” as those with ample open space
and parks to a broader analytical approach concerned with a balance
between environment, economy, and equity. Urban sustainability involves
inquiry from a myriad of disciplines, including sociology, political science,
economics, geography, planning, and architecture, among others. While
each discipline has heretofore independently provided contributions to the
concept of urban sustainability, more recent and cross-disciplinary research
is providing promising opportunities for truly sustainable development.
This entry, then, highlights the oft unsustainable growth of cities, examines
the more recent efforts to measure urban sustainability, and identifies
prospective approaches aimed at providing universal means to achieving
the sustainable city.
FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
Although cities of the world are projected to continue experience very different trends in terms of population growth and economic performance, cities
from both the global north and south are similarly affecting resources and
the environment and would benefit from sustainable urban development.
Research into the ways in which cities may be deemed unsustainable are
ubiquitous and typically highlight environmental problems associated with
urban growth. For example, the urban heat island effect, whereby the average
temperatures of cities may typically run 3.3–4.4∘ C (6–8∘ F) warmer than their
rural environs, has received significant attention. Increases in anthropogenic
heat and emissions of atmospheric pollutants, in tandem with decreases in
natural vegetation, form distinct islands of heat surrounded by countryside
Cities and Sustainable Development
3
of cooler temperatures. Continued unsustainable growth and sprawl of cities
will only serve to exacerbate this heat island effect, impacting both urban
populations and climates.
Cities also are noted for their disparate consumption of resources, waste
generation, and pollution output. Researchers such as Jo Beall and Sean Fox
(2007, p. 4) have pointed out that while urban areas cover only two percent of the earth’s land, they demand nearly three-quarters of all natural
resources consumed in a given year. As a result, much research along the
lines of sustainable development is oriented around the concept of the “ecological footprint,” which measures the amount of land needed to support a
city. Previous studies have estimated that cities around the world far exceed
the sustainable footprint of 4.5 acres per person. London, for example, has an
ecological footprint that is calculated to be upward of 300 times larger than its
land area. Strains on resources and the environment are therefore hallmarks
of cities around the world, although for differing reasons. In the developed
North, cities continue to demonstrate low-density sprawl and automobile
dependency. In the developing South, urban population growth far exceeds
existing infrastructure, jobs, and housing, leaving people to live in dreadful conditions. Thus, while the causes are varying, the results are similarly
unsustainable cities around the world.
CITIES OF THE GLOBAL SOUTH
Future growth of cities around the world is to be far from uniform, with virtually all urban expansion occurring in the less developed world of the global
South. Already many of the megacities of the South have populations that
rival entire countries of the North. For instance, at 23 million inhabitants, the
city of Shanghai, China, has a larger population than the continent of Australia. Likewise, the combined population of the Indian cities of Mumbai and
Delhi exceeds the total population of Canada. The Economist Intelligence
Unit (2011, p. 8) projects that in just over a decade, China will have approximately 225 cities with at least one million residents—or 200 more cities of
this size than Europe has at the present time. At all levels of the population
spectrum, cities of the global South are experiencing exceptional and unsustainable growth.
Research into these cities generally concentrates on the “brown agenda”
of economic growth and job creation. With millions of people being added
yearly to these already overburdened cities, priority is indeed given to
efforts that seek to alleviate poverty and generate prosperity. The link
between local knowledge and outside expertise and by the role played
by nongovernmental organizations has been at the very foundation of
research in cities of this world realm. Environmental concerns, although not
4
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
disregarded, are superseded by the goal of meeting basic human needs. As
following the Industrial Revolution when countries of the North grew prosperous at the cost of severe environmental degradation, cities of the South
are now seeking the same path toward wealth creation. This focus is readily
understood in cities such as Nairobi, Kenya, within which approximately
two-thirds of the populace resides in slum settlements. Lacking virtually
any medical care, public sanitation, or potable water, living conditions
are deplorable. Research and practical applications focused on providing
basic necessities of life have inevitably concentrated on poverty reduction
strategies and the economic underpinnings of sustainability.
CITIES OF THE GLOBAL NORTH
In contrast to their southern counterparts, sustainability efforts in the
typically wealthier cities of the global North concentrate more on the “green
agenda” of environmental stewardship. Over the past decade, and typified
by the likes of Berlin, Germany, and Montreal, Canada, most developed
cities have experienced only incremental population growth. Still others,
such as Detroit, Michigan, are noted for outright population decline. With
no concern over any dramatic increases in population, cities of this realm
have placed the environment at the core of their sustainability focus. Yet,
the green agenda remains elusive for most cities and particularly for cities
of the United States. For all the talk about sustainability, the American city
remains hallmarked by low-density development and dependency on the
automobile. As a result, current research agendas necessarily focus on the
relationship between urban form and sustainability while highlighting those
relatively rare U.S. successes.
For the most part, research into cities and sustainable development identifies and assesses examples of sustainability in a sort of patchwork approach
and with a near-singular focus on the environment. For instance, the cooling
effect engendered by painting building rooftops white or covering them with
grass and vegetation receives scholarly attention. Other studies focus on the
greening of cities through the urban commons approach of compact planning, urban gardens, and multimodal transportation. Similarly, the “complete streets” movement aims to produce routes of travel that are convenient
and safe for all users, not just those in the driver’s seat. Still other studies
analyze on the impact of congestion pricing, whereby automobile drivers are
charged more to drive through city centers during peak hours. Indeed, the
attention being paid to the concept of sustainability is evidenced by the fact
that a simple Google search of “sustainable cities” currently generates nearly
1.1 million responses. Yet, while there are innumerable areas of research, a
truly holistic research agenda into the sustainable city remains incomplete.
Cities and Sustainable Development
5
CUTTING EDGE
As cities in the developing world increasingly compete for resources, their
counterparts in the United States and other industrialized nations are being
forced to identify new approaches to urban planning, transportation, and
design. Designing new buildings, and retrofitting existing ones, so that they
meet “green” standards is being pursued so as to reduce energy consumption and therefore the building’s ecological footprint. The green standards
are known as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and are
set by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGB). Originating in the United
States, LEED projects have since been established in more than 135 countries
around the world. Research by Julie Cidell (2009) and others actively monitoring the number of LEED-registered buildings has provided thresholds
and benchmarks through which cities may be rated. This venue for research
is rapidly expanding as the number of registered LEED buildings has risen
from just over a dozen in 2004 to nearly 1100 in 2013. According to the USGB
website, buildings can meet LEED standards through various means. Use of
sustainable building materials and resource- and energy-efficient designs all
contribute to the building’s assessed sustainability.
Further research is examining the growth of other local urban environmental efforts, such as the global growth of ICLEI-Local Governments for
Sustainability. Founded as the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), the organization rebranded itself in 2003 so as
to more adequately reflect its mission of sustainability. Presently, more
than 1200 local governments are members of the organization, with cities
in the United States accounting for nearly one-half of the membership.
The efforts of the ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability, as well as
the USGB, afford opportunity for research into city-by-city comparative
analysis. Other initiatives likewise provide exemplars of sustainability, such
as Sustainable Seattle in the United States or the Sustainable City Award in
Europe. These examples of “best practices” highlighted in the research may
provide opportunity for emulation by other cities.
While no fully sustainable city exists as yet, P. D. Smith (2012, p. 308) and
others are following several developments that may ultimately demonstrate
the feasibility of such a goal. Perhaps the most closely studied project is that
of Masdar City, United Arab Emirates. With its first phase projected to be
finished in 2015, Masdar City is scheduled to be fully operational by 2025
and is to encompass 6 km2 and 45,000 residents. What sets this city apart is
the fact that it will be fully powered by renewable energy sources. Accentuated by the largest solar power plant in the world as well as a geothermal
plant, photovoltaic fields, and wind turbines, Masdar City will stand as the
world’s first carbon-neutral eco-city. Encouragingly, Masdar City is not alone.
6
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Outside of Shanghai, China, the development of a new satellite city named
Dongtan is under way. Also designed to be powered by renewable energy
and largely car-free, Dongtan is ultimately to house upward of half a million
people with an envisioned ecological footprint of just over 2 hectares per person. These examples provide both real-world as well as theoretical avenues
for cutting-edge research into the sustainability of cities.
KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
While much research on the issue of cities and sustainable development
has focused on the problems wrought by urban growth, forward-looking
research is now considering cities as potential solutions to key issues in
sustainability. With their typically higher densities, lower birth rates, and
more efficient resource use than suburban or rural areas, cities offer perhaps
unparalleled opportunities for sustainable living. Certainly not every new
city can be designed, nor every existing city retrofitted, as a Masdar City
or a Dongtan, but innovative steps can be taken to assuage environmental
degradation and resource consumption. While such measures are likely to
add to the costs of doing business, the price of doing nothing may well prove
far more costly. Cost–benefit analyses that adequately capture both the overt
and more intangible elements of sustainability must therefore be further
explored and refined. As cost conscious or cash strapped city governments
increasingly focus on the bottom-line, a straightforward measure of costs
and benefits is all the more necessary to foster sustainable development.
In addition to new economic approaches to development, as well as innovative changes in urban design, there is need for entirely new lines of research.
As noted by E. Eric Boschmann and Mei-Po Kwan (2008, p. 139), the absence
of any major research agenda or any theoretical understanding of sustainable
cities provides a clarion call for the social sciences. New research agendas that
heed such calls and encompass all facets of sustainable development must be
explored. Owing to the fact that sustainability requires modifications in virtually all facets of a city, a universal research agenda drawing from all potentially contributing disciplines is likewise required. Furthermore, key issues
of sustainability must be targeted for more in-depth investigation. Among
the most notable needs for further investigation is the impact of culture and
“sense of place” on a community. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has acknowledged the realm of
sustainable development to encompass economics and the natural sciences
but has also accentuated the fundamental role played by culture. Specifically,
the relationships between people and the values that they hold vary from culture to culture. Design for a sustainable city must therefore display cultural
understanding and reflect cultural sensitivity.
Cities and Sustainable Development
7
One-size-fits all approaches, or heavy handed top-down approaches, are
far less likely to succeed. Instead, future research must identify innovative
ways by which sustainable development initiatives reflect the tremendous
diversity between and even within cities. Sustainability initiatives must truly
reflect the people and areas for which they are designed and must enhance
emotional attachment between people and place. Ways to promote community ties and a strong sense of place that serve to facilitate efforts of sustainability must therefore be central to future research endeavors. These research
lines are likely to encourage promising ventures into sustainability by city
governments and planners, as land-use planning oriented around public participation and designed at the human scale is more likely to engender sustainable communities. Research veins into improved governance will also
facilitate sustainability. The fragmented government structures that exist in
the United States and elsewhere around the world currently serve as a deterrent to sustainable development. Competing governmental structures within
a top-down hierarchy not only hinders coordination but it can also lead to
inefficiency and inequity.
Equity itself is an issue that still has not been adequately addressed in
either research or practical application. While purportedly standing as
one of the three pillars of sustainability, it typically receives only nominal
attention by cities pursuing sustainable development. The same cities that
are active on the green agenda are virtually silent about inequalities in
service provision, public safety, employment opportunity, and a range of
other equity-based issues. Research that provides solutions to such issues
as the jobs-housing imbalance could ultimately be incorporated into a city’s
sustainability agenda and affect meaningful change. Generated through
research that captures public input, these solutions will likely prove far
more soluble than any government directive. Local control and locally based
plans that encapsulate the knowledge and culture of a place are unlikely to
be met with the resistance encountered by a one-size-fits-all mandate from
atop the governmental hierarchy. Therefore, research that is place-oriented
but that takes a holistic approach to sustainability will be the key to success.
Cities are now home to more than half the world’s population, they serve as
the engines of the global economy, and nowhere is the juxtaposition of wealth
and poverty or the environmental impact of development so apparent. When
contemplating the future of the world, one need only contemplate the future
of cities. Although currently unsustainable in form and function, cities paradoxically afford the greatest opportunity for successful sustainable development. Without doubt, pursuit of place-based and community-supported
research agendas that provide new paths toward sustainability should be a
goal for researchers throughout the social and behavioral sciences.
8
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
REFERENCES
Beall, J., & Fox, S. (2007). Urban poverty and development in the 21st century: Towards an
inclusive and sustainable world. Oxford, England: Oxford GB Research Report.
Boschmann, E. E., & Kwan, M. P. (2008). Toward socially sustainable urban transportation: Progress and potentials. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 2, 138–157.
Cidell, J. (2009). Building green: The emerging geography of LEED-certified building
and professionals. The Professional Geographer, 61(2), 200–215.
Economist Intelligence Unit (2011). Asian Green City Index: Assessing the environmental performance of Asia’s major cities. Retrieved from http://www.siemens.com/
entry/cc/features/greencityindex_international/all/de/pdf/report_asia.pdf
Smith, P. D. (2012). City: A guidebook for the urban age. London, England: Bloomsbury.
FUTURE READING
Bell, S., & Morse, S. (2008). Sustainability indicators: Measuring the immeasurable?
London, England: Earthscan.
Bijl, R. (2011). Never waste a good crisis: Towards social sustainable development.
Social Indicators Research, 102, 157–168. doi:10.1007/s11205-0109736-y
Clark, W., III, (2010). Sustainable communities. New York, NY: Springer.
de Vries, B., & Peterson, A. (2009). Conceptualizing sustainable development: An
assessment methodology connecting values, knowledge, worldviews and scenarios. Ecological Economics, 68, 106–1019. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.11.015
Douglas, I., Goode, D., Houck, M., & Wang, R. (Eds.) (2011). The Routledge handbook
of urban ecology. London, England: Routledge.
Platt, R. (Ed.) (2006). The humane metropolis: People and nature in the 21st-century city.
Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
Williams, K. (2010). Sustainable cities: research and practice challenges. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 1(1–2), 128–132. doi:10.1080/
19463131003654863
CHRISTOPHER CUSACK SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Christopher Cusack is Professor of Geography at Keene State College in
Keene, New Hampshire. He earned his MA and PhD from the University
of Akron, Ohio. His teaching responsibilities include courses in urban geography and planning as well as geographic information systems. He has previously published on issues of community planning, urban sustainability, and
regional development. Cusack is past Chair of the Regional Development
and Planning Specialty Group of the Association of American Geographers
from which he has been awarded the Distinguished Scholar Award. Traveling widely, Cusack enjoys photographing cultural and natural variations in
the landscape.
Cities and Sustainable Development
9
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Cities and Sustainable Development
CHRISTOPHER CUSACK
Abstract
When considering the future of the world, one must first and foremost consider the
future of its cities. Cities are currently home to more than half the world’s population
and are projected to encompass the preponderance of all future population growth.
Cities also require vast inputs of energy and resources while producing vast outputs
of waste. Recognition that these trends are not sustainable has generated a wealth
of relevant research. How cities can be sustainably developed in such a way that
meets present needs without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs is the critical problem to solve. Research in a myriad of fields, including
sociology, political science, economics, and geography, is active in its pursuit of the
sustainable city. This essay explains the components of sustainable development and
underscores the connection between sustainability and cities. Foundational research,
which primarily takes a regional approach to urban analysis, is then explored. This,
then, is followed by cutting-edge research that highlights new ways to measure sustainability and new efforts to build sustainable cities. The essay concludes with an
examination of some of the key issues for future research, including the need to
consider the cultural diversity within and between cities, as well ways to generate
sustainability through pioneering efforts of planning and governance.
INTRODUCTION
Global population trends portend the need for rigorous research agendas
that address the causes and consequences of an increasingly urbanized
world. Efforts to predict the immediate and the long-term consequences of
such urbanization as well as to explain the rapid concentration of the world’s
population into cities have helped foster new and innovative approaches
to urban design and analysis. Oriented around the call for sustainable
development, these research endeavors have recently taken on a new sense
of urgency. The year 2008, a watershed year in the history of humankind,
marked the first time ever the majority of humans could be classified
as “urban” as opposed to “rural.” The growth of cities, in terms of area,
population size, resource consumption, and environmental degradation,
is undoubtedly among the most pressing challenges of the twenty-first
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.
1
2
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
century. Without question, any discussion of sustainable development must
first and foremost take place at the city level.
First identified in the 1987 United Nations publication Our Common Future,
sustainable development has been identified as “development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.” The goal of sustainable development is oriented
around the “three E’s” of environmental protection, economic growth, and
social equity. However, as these elements remain frequently undefined or
even contradictory, there remains a pressing need for a holistic agenda of
research and practical application. Such a research agenda must account for
both place and culture, as a one-size-fits-all approach will likely do more
harm than good. With the growth of many cities of the global south at near
exponential rates, and with untenable consumption patterns in the urbanized
north, any new approach to sustainable development must be place-specific
and city-oriented.
Research into the nexus between cities and sustainable development has
evolved from thinking of “green cities” as those with ample open space
and parks to a broader analytical approach concerned with a balance
between environment, economy, and equity. Urban sustainability involves
inquiry from a myriad of disciplines, including sociology, political science,
economics, geography, planning, and architecture, among others. While
each discipline has heretofore independently provided contributions to the
concept of urban sustainability, more recent and cross-disciplinary research
is providing promising opportunities for truly sustainable development.
This entry, then, highlights the oft unsustainable growth of cities, examines
the more recent efforts to measure urban sustainability, and identifies
prospective approaches aimed at providing universal means to achieving
the sustainable city.
FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
Although cities of the world are projected to continue experience very different trends in terms of population growth and economic performance, cities
from both the global north and south are similarly affecting resources and
the environment and would benefit from sustainable urban development.
Research into the ways in which cities may be deemed unsustainable are
ubiquitous and typically highlight environmental problems associated with
urban growth. For example, the urban heat island effect, whereby the average
temperatures of cities may typically run 3.3–4.4∘ C (6–8∘ F) warmer than their
rural environs, has received significant attention. Increases in anthropogenic
heat and emissions of atmospheric pollutants, in tandem with decreases in
natural vegetation, form distinct islands of heat surrounded by countryside
Cities and Sustainable Development
3
of cooler temperatures. Continued unsustainable growth and sprawl of cities
will only serve to exacerbate this heat island effect, impacting both urban
populations and climates.
Cities also are noted for their disparate consumption of resources, waste
generation, and pollution output. Researchers such as Jo Beall and Sean Fox
(2007, p. 4) have pointed out that while urban areas cover only two percent of the earth’s land, they demand nearly three-quarters of all natural
resources consumed in a given year. As a result, much research along the
lines of sustainable development is oriented around the concept of the “ecological footprint,” which measures the amount of land needed to support a
city. Previous studies have estimated that cities around the world far exceed
the sustainable footprint of 4.5 acres per person. London, for example, has an
ecological footprint that is calculated to be upward of 300 times larger than its
land area. Strains on resources and the environment are therefore hallmarks
of cities around the world, although for differing reasons. In the developed
North, cities continue to demonstrate low-density sprawl and automobile
dependency. In the developing South, urban population growth far exceeds
existing infrastructure, jobs, and housing, leaving people to live in dreadful conditions. Thus, while the causes are varying, the results are similarly
unsustainable cities around the world.
CITIES OF THE GLOBAL SOUTH
Future growth of cities around the world is to be far from uniform, with virtually all urban expansion occurring in the less developed world of the global
South. Already many of the megacities of the South have populations that
rival entire countries of the North. For instance, at 23 million inhabitants, the
city of Shanghai, China, has a larger population than the continent of Australia. Likewise, the combined population of the Indian cities of Mumbai and
Delhi exceeds the total population of Canada. The Economist Intelligence
Unit (2011, p. 8) projects that in just over a decade, China will have approximately 225 cities with at least one million residents—or 200 more cities of
this size than Europe has at the present time. At all levels of the population
spectrum, cities of the global South are experiencing exceptional and unsustainable growth.
Research into these cities generally concentrates on the “brown agenda”
of economic growth and job creation. With millions of people being added
yearly to these already overburdened cities, priority is indeed given to
efforts that seek to alleviate poverty and generate prosperity. The link
between local knowledge and outside expertise and by the role played
by nongovernmental organizations has been at the very foundation of
research in cities of this world realm. Environmental concerns, although not
4
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
disregarded, are superseded by the goal of meeting basic human needs. As
following the Industrial Revolution when countries of the North grew prosperous at the cost of severe environmental degradation, cities of the South
are now seeking the same path toward wealth creation. This focus is readily
understood in cities such as Nairobi, Kenya, within which approximately
two-thirds of the populace resides in slum settlements. Lacking virtually
any medical care, public sanitation, or potable water, living conditions
are deplorable. Research and practical applications focused on providing
basic necessities of life have inevitably concentrated on poverty reduction
strategies and the economic underpinnings of sustainability.
CITIES OF THE GLOBAL NORTH
In contrast to their southern counterparts, sustainability efforts in the
typically wealthier cities of the global North concentrate more on the “green
agenda” of environmental stewardship. Over the past decade, and typified
by the likes of Berlin, Germany, and Montreal, Canada, most developed
cities have experienced only incremental population growth. Still others,
such as Detroit, Michigan, are noted for outright population decline. With
no concern over any dramatic increases in population, cities of this realm
have placed the environment at the core of their sustainability focus. Yet,
the green agenda remains elusive for most cities and particularly for cities
of the United States. For all the talk about sustainability, the American city
remains hallmarked by low-density development and dependency on the
automobile. As a result, current research agendas necessarily focus on the
relationship between urban form and sustainability while highlighting those
relatively rare U.S. successes.
For the most part, research into cities and sustainable development identifies and assesses examples of sustainability in a sort of patchwork approach
and with a near-singular focus on the environment. For instance, the cooling
effect engendered by painting building rooftops white or covering them with
grass and vegetation receives scholarly attention. Other studies focus on the
greening of cities through the urban commons approach of compact planning, urban gardens, and multimodal transportation. Similarly, the “complete streets” movement aims to produce routes of travel that are convenient
and safe for all users, not just those in the driver’s seat. Still other studies
analyze on the impact of congestion pricing, whereby automobile drivers are
charged more to drive through city centers during peak hours. Indeed, the
attention being paid to the concept of sustainability is evidenced by the fact
that a simple Google search of “sustainable cities” currently generates nearly
1.1 million responses. Yet, while there are innumerable areas of research, a
truly holistic research agenda into the sustainable city remains incomplete.
Cities and Sustainable Development
5
CUTTING EDGE
As cities in the developing world increasingly compete for resources, their
counterparts in the United States and other industrialized nations are being
forced to identify new approaches to urban planning, transportation, and
design. Designing new buildings, and retrofitting existing ones, so that they
meet “green” standards is being pursued so as to reduce energy consumption and therefore the building’s ecological footprint. The green standards
are known as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and are
set by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGB). Originating in the United
States, LEED projects have since been established in more than 135 countries
around the world. Research by Julie Cidell (2009) and others actively monitoring the number of LEED-registered buildings has provided thresholds
and benchmarks through which cities may be rated. This venue for research
is rapidly expanding as the number of registered LEED buildings has risen
from just over a dozen in 2004 to nearly 1100 in 2013. According to the USGB
website, buildings can meet LEED standards through various means. Use of
sustainable building materials and resource- and energy-efficient designs all
contribute to the building’s assessed sustainability.
Further research is examining the growth of other local urban environmental efforts, such as the global growth of ICLEI-Local Governments for
Sustainability. Founded as the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), the organization rebranded itself in 2003 so as
to more adequately reflect its mission of sustainability. Presently, more
than 1200 local governments are members of the organization, with cities
in the United States accounting for nearly one-half of the membership.
The efforts of the ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability, as well as
the USGB, afford opportunity for research into city-by-city comparative
analysis. Other initiatives likewise provide exemplars of sustainability, such
as Sustainable Seattle in the United States or the Sustainable City Award in
Europe. These examples of “best practices” highlighted in the research may
provide opportunity for emulation by other cities.
While no fully sustainable city exists as yet, P. D. Smith (2012, p. 308) and
others are following several developments that may ultimately demonstrate
the feasibility of such a goal. Perhaps the most closely studied project is that
of Masdar City, United Arab Emirates. With its first phase projected to be
finished in 2015, Masdar City is scheduled to be fully operational by 2025
and is to encompass 6 km2 and 45,000 residents. What sets this city apart is
the fact that it will be fully powered by renewable energy sources. Accentuated by the largest solar power plant in the world as well as a geothermal
plant, photovoltaic fields, and wind turbines, Masdar City will stand as the
world’s first carbon-neutral eco-city. Encouragingly, Masdar City is not alone.
6
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Outside of Shanghai, China, the development of a new satellite city named
Dongtan is under way. Also designed to be powered by renewable energy
and largely car-free, Dongtan is ultimately to house upward of half a million
people with an envisioned ecological footprint of just over 2 hectares per person. These examples provide both real-world as well as theoretical avenues
for cutting-edge research into the sustainability of cities.
KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
While much research on the issue of cities and sustainable development
has focused on the problems wrought by urban growth, forward-looking
research is now considering cities as potential solutions to key issues in
sustainability. With their typically higher densities, lower birth rates, and
more efficient resource use than suburban or rural areas, cities offer perhaps
unparalleled opportunities for sustainable living. Certainly not every new
city can be designed, nor every existing city retrofitted, as a Masdar City
or a Dongtan, but innovative steps can be taken to assuage environmental
degradation and resource consumption. While such measures are likely to
add to the costs of doing business, the price of doing nothing may well prove
far more costly. Cost–benefit analyses that adequately capture both the overt
and more intangible elements of sustainability must therefore be further
explored and refined. As cost conscious or cash strapped city governments
increasingly focus on the bottom-line, a straightforward measure of costs
and benefits is all the more necessary to foster sustainable development.
In addition to new economic approaches to development, as well as innovative changes in urban design, there is need for entirely new lines of research.
As noted by E. Eric Boschmann and Mei-Po Kwan (2008, p. 139), the absence
of any major research agenda or any theoretical understanding of sustainable
cities provides a clarion call for the social sciences. New research agendas that
heed such calls and encompass all facets of sustainable development must be
explored. Owing to the fact that sustainability requires modifications in virtually all facets of a city, a universal research agenda drawing from all potentially contributing disciplines is likewise required. Furthermore, key issues
of sustainability must be targeted for more in-depth investigation. Among
the most notable needs for further investigation is the impact of culture and
“sense of place” on a community. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has acknowledged the realm of
sustainable development to encompass economics and the natural sciences
but has also accentuated the fundamental role played by culture. Specifically,
the relationships between people and the values that they hold vary from culture to culture. Design for a sustainable city must therefore display cultural
understanding and reflect cultural sensitivity.
Cities and Sustainable Development
7
One-size-fits all approaches, or heavy handed top-down approaches, are
far less likely to succeed. Instead, future research must identify innovative
ways by which sustainable development initiatives reflect the tremendous
diversity between and even within cities. Sustainability initiatives must truly
reflect the people and areas for which they are designed and must enhance
emotional attachment between people and place. Ways to promote community ties and a strong sense of place that serve to facilitate efforts of sustainability must therefore be central to future research endeavors. These research
lines are likely to encourage promising ventures into sustainability by city
governments and planners, as land-use planning oriented around public participation and designed at the human scale is more likely to engender sustainable communities. Research veins into improved governance will also
facilitate sustainability. The fragmented government structures that exist in
the United States and elsewhere around the world currently serve as a deterrent to sustainable development. Competing governmental structures within
a top-down hierarchy not only hinders coordination but it can also lead to
inefficiency and inequity.
Equity itself is an issue that still has not been adequately addressed in
either research or practical application. While purportedly standing as
one of the three pillars of sustainability, it typically receives only nominal
attention by cities pursuing sustainable development. The same cities that
are active on the green agenda are virtually silent about inequalities in
service provision, public safety, employment opportunity, and a range of
other equity-based issues. Research that provides solutions to such issues
as the jobs-housing imbalance could ultimately be incorporated into a city’s
sustainability agenda and affect meaningful change. Generated through
research that captures public input, these solutions will likely prove far
more soluble than any government directive. Local control and locally based
plans that encapsulate the knowledge and culture of a place are unlikely to
be met with the resistance encountered by a one-size-fits-all mandate from
atop the governmental hierarchy. Therefore, research that is place-oriented
but that takes a holistic approach to sustainability will be the key to success.
Cities are now home to more than half the world’s population, they serve as
the engines of the global economy, and nowhere is the juxtaposition of wealth
and poverty or the environmental impact of development so apparent. When
contemplating the future of the world, one need only contemplate the future
of cities. Although currently unsustainable in form and function, cities paradoxically afford the greatest opportunity for successful sustainable development. Without doubt, pursuit of place-based and community-supported
research agendas that provide new paths toward sustainability should be a
goal for researchers throughout the social and behavioral sciences.
8
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
REFERENCES
Beall, J., & Fox, S. (2007). Urban poverty and development in the 21st century: Towards an
inclusive and sustainable world. Oxford, England: Oxford GB Research Report.
Boschmann, E. E., & Kwan, M. P. (2008). Toward socially sustainable urban transportation: Progress and potentials. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 2, 138–157.
Cidell, J. (2009). Building green: The emerging geography of LEED-certified building
and professionals. The Professional Geographer, 61(2), 200–215.
Economist Intelligence Unit (2011). Asian Green City Index: Assessing the environmental performance of Asia’s major cities. Retrieved from http://www.siemens.com/
entry/cc/features/greencityindex_international/all/de/pdf/report_asia.pdf
Smith, P. D. (2012). City: A guidebook for the urban age. London, England: Bloomsbury.
FUTURE READING
Bell, S., & Morse, S. (2008). Sustainability indicators: Measuring the immeasurable?
London, England: Earthscan.
Bijl, R. (2011). Never waste a good crisis: Towards social sustainable development.
Social Indicators Research, 102, 157–168. doi:10.1007/s11205-0109736-y
Clark, W., III, (2010). Sustainable communities. New York, NY: Springer.
de Vries, B., & Peterson, A. (2009). Conceptualizing sustainable development: An
assessment methodology connecting values, knowledge, worldviews and scenarios. Ecological Economics, 68, 106–1019. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.11.015
Douglas, I., Goode, D., Houck, M., & Wang, R. (Eds.) (2011). The Routledge handbook
of urban ecology. London, England: Routledge.
Platt, R. (Ed.) (2006). The humane metropolis: People and nature in the 21st-century city.
Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
Williams, K. (2010). Sustainable cities: research and practice challenges. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 1(1–2), 128–132. doi:10.1080/
19463131003654863
CHRISTOPHER CUSACK SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Christopher Cusack is Professor of Geography at Keene State College in
Keene, New Hampshire. He earned his MA and PhD from the University
of Akron, Ohio. His teaching responsibilities include courses in urban geography and planning as well as geographic information systems. He has previously published on issues of community planning, urban sustainability, and
regional development. Cusack is past Chair of the Regional Development
and Planning Specialty Group of the Association of American Geographers
from which he has been awarded the Distinguished Scholar Award. Traveling widely, Cusack enjoys photographing cultural and natural variations in
the landscape.
Cities and Sustainable Development
9
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