Emerging Trends in The Social and Behavioral Sciences

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

Item

Title

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

Author

Spellerberg, Annette

Schelisch, Lynn

Research Area

Social Processes

Topic

Technology

Abstract

Global ageing is a challenge, particularly with the high speed of the ageing process. As the orientation toward nuclear families without extended family members is growing and the number of children is decreasing, fewer senior citizens in developed countries live under the same roof with their children as in past decades. Families are less and less able to provide support and comfort for older people. Social communities are expected to secure the quality of life of senior citizens as well as their ability to lead a self‐reliant, autonomous life. Social policies emphasize ageing in place and therefore the enhancement of neighborhoods and community resources. Digital technologies can contribute to the welfare of the elderly, as they offer communication opportunities, safety functions or health support. More and more the question of enabling contacts and service provision is increasingly based on access to broadband and ICT.

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Identifier

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extracted text

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By
Technology and Social Bonds
ANNETTE SPELLERBERG and LYNN SCHELISCH

Abstract
Global ageing is a challenge, particularly with the high speed of the ageing process. As the orientation toward nuclear families without extended family members is
growing and the number of children is decreasing, fewer senior citizens in developed
countries live under the same roof with their children as in past decades. Families are
less and less able to provide support and comfort for older people. Social communities are expected to secure the quality of life of senior citizens as well as their ability
to lead a self-reliant, autonomous life. Social policies emphasize ageing in place and
therefore the enhancement of neighborhoods and community resources. Digital technologies can contribute to the welfare of the elderly, as they offer communication
opportunities, safety functions or health support. More and more the question of
enabling contacts and service provision is increasingly based on access to broadband
and ICT.
In this essay the question is pursued as to which extent new intelligent devices in
senior households, often referred to as Ambient Assisted Living (AAL), increase comfort and safety, provide support and facilitate social contact for elderly people in their
homes. Already by now, older people are able to use assistive technologies on a regular basis and in very different ways. Modern user interfaces empower senior citizens,
ensuring information and entertainment of the Internet. AAL technologies do not
diminish direct social contact, but strengthen the sense of belonging by offering new
possibilities of getting and keeping in contact.

INTRODUCTION
Rising life expectancy combined with decreasing numbers of young people
results in an increasing weight of elderly people in relation to younger
generations (United States Census Bureau, 2011). As a global consequence,
societies rapidly age, the process of ageing is even faster in developing than in
old industrialized countries. It is expected that in 2050 over 2 billion persons
older than 60 live in the world (810 million in 2012; United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and HelpAge International, 2012), and the proportion
of elderly compared to younger generations increases significantly (2030;
European Commission, 2011). At the same time, the traditional support
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.

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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

system for the elderly decreases because of changing family structures,
for example, rural to urban migration, divorces, childless marriages and
increasing flexibility demands of the labor market (BMI, 2011; Wu & Pollard,
1998). Feminization, singularization, centenarization, and autonomy are
the key words for demographic change in developed countries (UNFPA &
HelpAge, 2012).
Welfare states differ in the responsibility they expect from families
regarding elderly care (cf. welfare typology of Esping-Andersen, 1990;
Esping-Andersen & Myles, 2009). In “social democratic” regimes, including
most Scandinavian governments, the welfare state assumes nearly all social
services, whereas countries, such as Germany or Spain, primarily involve
families and give the state a subsidiary or residual role. There are legal
obligations for adult children toward older parents and lower levels of
service in areas that are traditionally a family responsibility (e.g., long-term
care) (Haberkern & Szydlik, 2010). The global trends of a decline of shared
households and an increase in female employment are no longer compatible
with the involvement of the families in those countries. Thus, the impact of
professional care and alternative support structures increases, however, in a
culture-specific variation (Brandt, Haberkern, & Szydlik, 2009; Cornwell &
Waite, 2009).
Aging in place is the preferred option of many older people and
emphasized in social policies. Most seniors wish to stay in their
self-chosen-environment as long as possible, even if they experience a
growing loss in quality of life (Davey, 2006; Köcher & Bruttel, 2012; Vasunilashorn, Steinman, Liebig, & Pynoos, 2012). In Germany, a country with a
comparably long-term residency, 93% of the 65-year-olds and older live in
normal private apartments and houses, 3% in assisted living or congregate
living facilities and only 4% live in nursing homes (skilled care facilities;
BFW Research, 2007). A similar situation can be found in Canada, where
92% of the population aged 65 and older lives in private dwellings, 5% in
nursing homes, chronic care or long-term care hospitals and 3% in residences for senior citizens (Statistics Canada, 2011). There is no indication of
a future extension of demand for long-term care institutions, but an increase
of demand for ambulant care and support for families (Bengtson, Kim,
Myers, & Eun, 2000). Considering the constant growth of the number of
older people, the risk of social isolation, the costs for professional care, and
the lack of skilled care attendants, alternative ways of support are needed
(Loader, Hardey, & Keeble, 2009; Ziefle & Röcker, 2011). These trends enforce
developed countries to find new social and technical solutions enabling
seniors to live independently as long as possible.
In this contribution, we focus on new developments of ICT in private
households of senior citizens. A couple of years ago the term Ambient

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

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Assisted Living (AAL) emerged in Europe. “Ambient Assisted Living enables
the provision of equipment and services for the independent living of elderly
people, via the seamless integration of info-communication technologies
within homes and extended homes, thus increasing their quality of life and
autonomy and reducing the need for being institutionalized. These include
assistance to carry out daily activities, health and activity monitoring,
enhancing safety and security, getting access to social, medical and emergency systems, and facilitating social contacts, in addition to context-based
infotainment and entertainment” (VDI/VDE, 2006, p. 1). AAL technology
requires a technology that is “invisible, embedded in the user’s surroundings, adaptive to the user’s needs, and acting autonomously” (Floeck, 2010,
p. 3). Although single devices, as well as interconnected systems in the
field of Smart Home, mainly cover aspects of comfort, safety and security,
AAL systems (also) affect aspects of health, communication, and/or social
services. AAL has become a well-established international research domain
ever since (see AALA, 2014). The newly emerged research strategy of the EU
“Horizon 2020” aims “at meeting the challenge of an aging population by
encouraging the emergence of innovative products and services based on
ICT, allowing seniors to live independently, in order to improve their quality
of life and autonomy and reduce the cost of their care” (European Commission, 2014). In this follow-up program, the term Ambient was replaced
by “Active,” as a more understandable and person-centered term: Active
and Assisted Living (European Commission, 2014). cyber-physical systems
(CPS, Baheti & Gill, 2011) combine computation and physical processes, for
example in physical prostheses, vehicle control systems, smart grids and
smart metering. Wearables subsume technologies such as smart watches,
smart belts, or smart plaster that gather vital data such as blood pressure,
pulse frequency, or insulin level and transmit them to the mobile application
or via Internet to a medical doctor or service station (Lanagan, Smeaton, &
Caulfield, 2011). Related new developments are characterized as “Internet of
Things,” “Smart Buildings and Cities,” “Intelligent Driving,” and “Ambient
Persuasion.” The areas of living, mobility, technical infrastructure, individual
behavior, and health are continuing growing together (ERCIM News, 2011).
Besides technical support social bonds are crucial for independent living
and quality of life. As families more often are distributed in different places,
neighborhoods and communities become more important for the elderly,
who are not as mobile as younger age groups (Rosenbloom, 2003). Local
communities become a central resource for elderlies, not only for support,
but also for conviviality, empowerment and participation. Developments
in social bonds and new technologies both shape the increasing third and
fourth period of life.

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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

CLASSIC FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
AMBIENT ASSISTED LIVING
Facing the big success of ICT, researchers have been trying to bring intelligent artifacts into private homes for decades. Systems and services aim at
meeting the needs for an aging society, providing access to the information
society, empower people to participate in society and improve their quality
of living. In pilot projects home automation is combined with health issues,
such as the EU-initiatives “SAFE21,” “TeleCare for Seniors,” or “IST@home”
(all projects listed at www.aal-europe.eu). In the US, the “AwareHome” in
Atlanta Georgia, the “Blacksburg Electronic Village” in Virginia, “At home
and in touch” in Columbia, or smart homes in Edinburgh and York in the
UK can be named.
Nonetheless, a breakthrough cannot yet be recognized, because apart from
pilot projects AAL-technology is barely prevalent in senior households. Reasons for the reluctance of housing companies and private owners are manifold and can be attributed to reliability and knowledge combined with high
costs for installations and maintenance as well as missing business models or even aesthetical reasons. Housing companies and scientists who conducted pilot projects often experience disappointments, because the needs of
elderly people are not considered adequately (Spellerberg & Schelisch, 2012;
Wichert, Furari, Kung, & Tazari, 2012; Salvi, Colomer, Arredondo, & Walderhaug, 2012). First, projects had to rely on a slow internet on one hand and
on the other hand failed to address human anxieties and needs adequately
(Moran, 1993). Older people were regarded as customers, subjects to data
collection and not as co-creators, having an interactive engagement with the
system (Loader et al., 2009). Until now it is not clear which technological concepts and which single devices are of use for elderly people (Haigh, Kiff, &
Ho, 2006; van Berlo, van den Heuvel, Nap, Bierhoff, & Rijnen, 2012). Acceptance, social acceptability, utility, and usability are criteria that have to be
met for achieving autonomy, support, and social inclusion of older people
(Kuneva et al., 2010). One solution can be seen in the combination of social
support and technical assistance—such as AAL—enabling elderly people to
live independently as long as possible.
SOCIAL BONDS
Social bonds are understood as relationships individuals have with others
based on a sense of belonging (Lin, 1986). According to the results of various
representative studies (German General Social Survey. Retrieved from
www.gesis.org/en/allbus) elderly people have a slightly above average
frequency of neighborhood contacts, and are generally satisfied with the

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

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relationships in their neighborhoods. Gerontologist have stressed that the
significance of close spatial contacts increases with age, due among other to
increasing restrictions on mobility, and hence a reduced radius of contacts,
reduction in size of households, and the thinning out of social networks (Oh,
2003; Heuwinkel & Borchers, 1999). Elderly people, moreover, generally
spend a larger proportion of their time in their dwellings or in their immediate vicinity, which increases the probability of contact with neighbors
(Saup, 1993). An extended period of residence at a single place, which is
often the case for elderly people, increases the probability of getting to know
one another. The resulting closer ties to one’s place of residence are also
expressed in the desire not to change one’s living situation (cf. e.g., Banse,
Oertel, & Deilmann, 2008; Höpflinger, 2004).
Emergency help, communications, and social control are functions that
are expected of neighbors, and are fulfilled by them (cf. Hamm, 2000).
However, support activities in neighborhoods are generally assumed as
subsidiary at the other reference groups and institutions (cf. Künemund &
Hollstein, 2005, p. 253). People normally do not want to depend on their
direct neighbors. They do not want to violate the principle of reciprocity, and
feel ashamed if they cannot give back what they get (cf. Putnam, Leonardi, &
Nanetti, 1993). The benefits of social proximity, “everyday life-worlds,” and
“place-based communities” (Davies & Herbert, 1993) cannot replace social
service provision.
Especially in the context of demographic change, the activation of
neighborhoods is an approach which is supported by social planners and
policymakers in order to compensate for supply deficiencies. A lack of
neighborhood support is seen as disadvantageous for individual integration
and societal cohesion. However, neighborhood and community relations are
not always seen as different concepts (Blokland, 2003). Spatial proximity in
and of itself does not create community ties; only emotionally oriented relationships result in the creation of communities (see also Gottdiener & Budd,
2005, p. 11; Smith, 2001). Closer interactive relationships, such as regular
assistance or visiting one another are more common if other similarities also
exist, particularly similar lifestyles. Hence, the likelihood of interaction and
assistance are more common in socially homogenous neighborhoods that
in heterogeneous neighborhoods. Putnam (2000) declared that communities
are vanishing in the US, but since the start of the Internet the term community
gets new meanings, as geographical limitations are less important to stay in
touch and—as retirement communities still are not very widespread—the
need for social contacts and social bonds may be enhanced by ICT.

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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

CUTTING-EDGE RESEARCH
After 25 years of experiences with smart homes, new solutions and functions
can be identified. Displays are more user-friendly and less complicated and
older people are more attracted to computers and the internet. In the year
2013, 30% of older German men and women aged 70 and older were “online,”
the proportion of persons in their 60s was much higher (64%; Initiative D21,
2013). Similar numbers can be found in the US, where 57% aged 65 and older
use the internet (87% of American adults; Fox & Rainie, 2014). The majority
of two thirds of internet users proclaim that online communication strengthened relationships with friends and family members, instead of weakening
them. Use of media and social contacts are the most frequent leisure activities of elderlies, such as conversations, watching TV, reading, listening to
the radio, visiting friends, dining out, shopping, or playing games (Strain,
Grabusic, Searle, & Dunn, 2002; Spellerberg, 2014; Adams, Leibbrandt, &
Moon, 2011).
In the following paragraph a research project in Germany is described,
fostering a combination and mutual development of both aspects of quality
of life, newest technical standard as well as sense of community and
belonging. The project in the German city of Kaiserslautern emerged from
a cooperation of the University of Kaiserslautern and a local housing company. The ambient technology comprises of home automation components,
such as motion detectors, door, and window reed contacts, wall switches, a
door camera, remote controlled door openers, and others. The core element
of the AAL-technology is a touchscreen PC called PAUL, the personal
assistive unit for living,1 which 19 participating households were equipped
with in 2007. PAUL provides—functionalities for comfort (e.g., electric
shutters), entertainment (e.g., Internet access, electronic bulletin forum,
web radio, serious games), safety functions (e.g., video entry phone), and
communication (videotelephony). The data sent by the home automation
sensors is used for monitoring the activity of a user. Any untypical inactivity
period detected in the tenants’ apartments may indicate a potential emergency, like falls. In this case, PAUL would automatically trigger an alarm
(Floeck, Litz, & Rodner, 2011; Litz & Gross, 2008). The design of the display
(functions, colors, numbers, symbols, pictures) was developed with the
input of the (future) users. The evaluation of the requirements, experiences
and acceptance of technical solutions showed that PAUL is operated with
ease and is used in manifold and different ways, and in most cases on a
regular day-to-day basis (Floeck, Litz, & Spellerberg, 2012). For the tenants,
the implemented technical devices do not represent “technology,” as they
1. In late 2011 the trademark rights of “PAUL” were sold to CIBEK technology & trading GmbH
(CIBEK), while research and development in the research project continued.

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

7

would think of technology being complicated and can only be understood
using a manual. Instead, most features were inconspicuously integrated
into their everyday life and adopted playfully, although the features of
PAUL met with differing levels of acceptance and there are a few nonusers
(Schelisch, 2014).
Next to technology, social integration played an important part in the
project. Already a few weeks after moving in, the residents had begun
forming a community: they organize afternoon coffee parties as well as
excursions, watch TV together, and look after each other. Tenants organized
a computer course for those, who were interested in working with a PC.
Trust toward the AAL-system is enhanced through the community building
process, as “PAUL” is a connectional topic of conversation (Spellerberg,
2010). Furthermore, the usage of the touch screen-PC PAUL is related to
social contact, self-esteem, safety feeling and entertainment. The decisive
factors for feeling at home are primarily the close-knit community, respectively the fact of not being alone (anymore) and the fact that the tenants
feel comfortable in their apartments and in the building. Two thirds of the
respondents call the house their (new) home (Floeck et al., 2012). The older
people, most of them between 60 and 80 years old, not only enjoy meetings,
outings, and new friendships, but also started to compare their use of and the
bill for energy, heating, and water supply, which is considered quite private
information. They found out that meters did not work and that meters were
assigned to wrong households. The landlord prevented the tenants from
getting the mismanagement of the city-owned supplier published in the
local newspaper. Mutual trust, self-confidence, and community enabled the
older persons (nonacademic with one exception) to disclose mistakes and
take things very actively into their own hands.
In the project, living in the social community with neighbors and preserving this integration were considered crucial factors for a good quality of life.
Also, the advanced technology including transponders to open the entrance
door and the AAL-features as well as barrier-free flats, living in the inner
parts of the city and access to social and medical infrastructure were positively evaluated (Spellerberg, 2010). Similar approaches can be identified in
so-called smart communities, which foster social learning and social inclusion using ICT: “a holistic approach to helping entire communities go online
to connect to local governments, schools, businesses, citizens, and health and
social services in order to create specific services to address local objectives
and to help advance collective skills and capacities” (Hollands, 2008, p. 309;
similar Coe, Paquet, & Roy, 2001).

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KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
To reach broader acceptance and new steps toward a socio-technical support
system it will be necessary to continue developing technology and accompanying service packages in close contact with the end-users (elderlies, carers
and relatives, and institutions and enterprises). Devices and functions should
be designed “ … to be utilized socially in ways that empower and educate
people, and get them involved in a political debate about their own lives and
the urban environment that they inhabit” (Hollands, 2008, p. 315). Besides
technical solutions it is still necessary to find specific forms of service organizations which fit into the established structures. An interdisciplinary and
trans-disciplinary approach is necessary, including information and communication technology, housing research, spatial planning, and social sciences.
Furthermore, ageing in place needs to overcome the divide between housing, service providers, commercial services, and the medical sector. More
and more, information and communication technology is essential to integrate services of general interest and to guarantee access to information and
entertainment and enhance personal contact.
However, social exclusion via lack of access to the Internet seems to be a
new societal challenge. Furthermore, possibilities of surveillance (dataveillance), loss of data ownership, digital inequality, outcasts, and adverse affection have to be taken into account as negative aspects in the development
toward multifaceted technical and social connectedness. In order to avoid
undesirable effects of AAL-technology, ethical decision making is demanded,
considering the principles of autonomy of persons, benefits, avoidance of
harm and justice.
The neighborhood approach is promising for ageing in place and using
ICT. Firstly, adapted houses, an accessible environment and adequate care
facilities are basic elements for quality of life. Secondly, neighborhood support is seen as advantageous for individual integration and societal cohesion
(Richardson, 2008, 2012). Thirdly, ICT allows new possibilities for Active and
Assisted living, for example, networking on a broader basis, communication
via videotelephony, access local information, playing games, coordinating
activities such as shopping, baking, or cooking together and getting advice
and support. This potential and the everyday local practices also include
a large, hardly tapped potential for new ideas, and their realization that
extends beyond the realm of leisure and cultural activities into the field
of government policy, to include services and participation. Regarding the
share of computer literate senior citizens, intuitively usable information
technologies may contribute to a further closure of the “digital divide”
between young and old (Korupp & Szydlik, 2005).

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Reference.

ANNETTE SPELLERBERG SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Since 2008 Annette Spellerberg is full professor of urban sociology at the
University of Kaiserslautern (www.spellerberg-stadtsoziologie.de), where
she started as an assistant professor (2002–2008). She was born in Bad
Dribung, Germany, and received her training in sociology, psychology and
education science at the Free University of Berlin (Diploma 1987; PhD 1995).
Annette Spellerberg worked as a researcher at the FU Berlin (1987–1989),
at the Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin (WZB; Social Science Research Center)
(1990–1997) and a research assistant at Bamberg University (2000–2002). In
the academic year 1997–1998 she was a fellow at the Center for Advanced
Study in the Behavioral Sciences in Stanford. She published six books
and wrote numerous articles on lifestyle, place identity, urban sociology,
demographic change and housing.
Areas of Work: Urban and regional sociology, social inequality, quality of
life, lifestyles, housing, sociology of ageing.
LYNN SCHELISCH SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Lynn Schelisch is a PhD candidate in spatial planning and works as a
research associate at the Department of Urban sociology at the University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. She graduated from the University of
Kaiserslautern in 2007 and holds a degree in spatial planning, focusing on

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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

urban sociology. Her areas of work include research on user acceptance
of technologies for the elderly, technically assisted housing, smart home,
cooperative housing and collaborative housing.
RELATED ESSAYS
Emergence of Stratification in Small Groups (Sociology), Noah Askin et al.
Kin-Directed Behavior in Primates (Anthropology), Carol M. Berman
Theory of Mind (Psychology), Henry Wellman
Close Friendships among Contemporary People (Sociology), Matthew E.
Brashears and Laura Aufderheide Brashears
Problems Attract Problems: A Network Perspective on Mental Disorders
(Psychology), Angélique Cramer and Denny Borsboom
Food Sharing (Anthropology), Michael Gurven and Adrian V. Jaeggi
The Development of Social Trust (Psychology), Vikram K. Jaswal and Marissa
B. Drell
Herd Behavior (Psychology), Tatsuya Kameda and Reid Hastie
Cultural Neuroscience: Connecting Culture, Brain, and Genes (Psychology),
Shinobu Kitayama and Sarah Huff
Emotion and Intergroup Relations (Psychology), Diane M. Mackie et al.
A Bio-Social-Cultural Approach to Early Cognitive Development: Entering
the Community of Minds (Psychology), Katherine Nelson
Gestural Communication in Nonhuman Species (Anthropology), Simone Pika
Social Relationships and Health in Older Adulthood (Psychology), Theodore
F. Robles and Josephine A. Menkin
Vocal Communication in Primates (Anthropology), Katie E. Slocombe
Social Classification (Sociology), Elizabeth G. Pontikes
Creativity in Teams (Psychology), Leigh L. Thompson and Elizabeth Ruth
Wilson
Social Neuroendocrine Approaches to Relationships (Anthropology), Sari M.
van Anders and Peter B. Gray



Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By
Technology and Social Bonds
ANNETTE SPELLERBERG and LYNN SCHELISCH

Abstract
Global ageing is a challenge, particularly with the high speed of the ageing process. As the orientation toward nuclear families without extended family members is
growing and the number of children is decreasing, fewer senior citizens in developed
countries live under the same roof with their children as in past decades. Families are
less and less able to provide support and comfort for older people. Social communities are expected to secure the quality of life of senior citizens as well as their ability
to lead a self-reliant, autonomous life. Social policies emphasize ageing in place and
therefore the enhancement of neighborhoods and community resources. Digital technologies can contribute to the welfare of the elderly, as they offer communication
opportunities, safety functions or health support. More and more the question of
enabling contacts and service provision is increasingly based on access to broadband
and ICT.
In this essay the question is pursued as to which extent new intelligent devices in
senior households, often referred to as Ambient Assisted Living (AAL), increase comfort and safety, provide support and facilitate social contact for elderly people in their
homes. Already by now, older people are able to use assistive technologies on a regular basis and in very different ways. Modern user interfaces empower senior citizens,
ensuring information and entertainment of the Internet. AAL technologies do not
diminish direct social contact, but strengthen the sense of belonging by offering new
possibilities of getting and keeping in contact.

INTRODUCTION
Rising life expectancy combined with decreasing numbers of young people
results in an increasing weight of elderly people in relation to younger
generations (United States Census Bureau, 2011). As a global consequence,
societies rapidly age, the process of ageing is even faster in developing than in
old industrialized countries. It is expected that in 2050 over 2 billion persons
older than 60 live in the world (810 million in 2012; United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and HelpAge International, 2012), and the proportion
of elderly compared to younger generations increases significantly (2030;
European Commission, 2011). At the same time, the traditional support
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.

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system for the elderly decreases because of changing family structures,
for example, rural to urban migration, divorces, childless marriages and
increasing flexibility demands of the labor market (BMI, 2011; Wu & Pollard,
1998). Feminization, singularization, centenarization, and autonomy are
the key words for demographic change in developed countries (UNFPA &
HelpAge, 2012).
Welfare states differ in the responsibility they expect from families
regarding elderly care (cf. welfare typology of Esping-Andersen, 1990;
Esping-Andersen & Myles, 2009). In “social democratic” regimes, including
most Scandinavian governments, the welfare state assumes nearly all social
services, whereas countries, such as Germany or Spain, primarily involve
families and give the state a subsidiary or residual role. There are legal
obligations for adult children toward older parents and lower levels of
service in areas that are traditionally a family responsibility (e.g., long-term
care) (Haberkern & Szydlik, 2010). The global trends of a decline of shared
households and an increase in female employment are no longer compatible
with the involvement of the families in those countries. Thus, the impact of
professional care and alternative support structures increases, however, in a
culture-specific variation (Brandt, Haberkern, & Szydlik, 2009; Cornwell &
Waite, 2009).
Aging in place is the preferred option of many older people and
emphasized in social policies. Most seniors wish to stay in their
self-chosen-environment as long as possible, even if they experience a
growing loss in quality of life (Davey, 2006; Köcher & Bruttel, 2012; Vasunilashorn, Steinman, Liebig, & Pynoos, 2012). In Germany, a country with a
comparably long-term residency, 93% of the 65-year-olds and older live in
normal private apartments and houses, 3% in assisted living or congregate
living facilities and only 4% live in nursing homes (skilled care facilities;
BFW Research, 2007). A similar situation can be found in Canada, where
92% of the population aged 65 and older lives in private dwellings, 5% in
nursing homes, chronic care or long-term care hospitals and 3% in residences for senior citizens (Statistics Canada, 2011). There is no indication of
a future extension of demand for long-term care institutions, but an increase
of demand for ambulant care and support for families (Bengtson, Kim,
Myers, & Eun, 2000). Considering the constant growth of the number of
older people, the risk of social isolation, the costs for professional care, and
the lack of skilled care attendants, alternative ways of support are needed
(Loader, Hardey, & Keeble, 2009; Ziefle & Röcker, 2011). These trends enforce
developed countries to find new social and technical solutions enabling
seniors to live independently as long as possible.
In this contribution, we focus on new developments of ICT in private
households of senior citizens. A couple of years ago the term Ambient

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3

Assisted Living (AAL) emerged in Europe. “Ambient Assisted Living enables
the provision of equipment and services for the independent living of elderly
people, via the seamless integration of info-communication technologies
within homes and extended homes, thus increasing their quality of life and
autonomy and reducing the need for being institutionalized. These include
assistance to carry out daily activities, health and activity monitoring,
enhancing safety and security, getting access to social, medical and emergency systems, and facilitating social contacts, in addition to context-based
infotainment and entertainment” (VDI/VDE, 2006, p. 1). AAL technology
requires a technology that is “invisible, embedded in the user’s surroundings, adaptive to the user’s needs, and acting autonomously” (Floeck, 2010,
p. 3). Although single devices, as well as interconnected systems in the
field of Smart Home, mainly cover aspects of comfort, safety and security,
AAL systems (also) affect aspects of health, communication, and/or social
services. AAL has become a well-established international research domain
ever since (see AALA, 2014). The newly emerged research strategy of the EU
“Horizon 2020” aims “at meeting the challenge of an aging population by
encouraging the emergence of innovative products and services based on
ICT, allowing seniors to live independently, in order to improve their quality
of life and autonomy and reduce the cost of their care” (European Commission, 2014). In this follow-up program, the term Ambient was replaced
by “Active,” as a more understandable and person-centered term: Active
and Assisted Living (European Commission, 2014). cyber-physical systems
(CPS, Baheti & Gill, 2011) combine computation and physical processes, for
example in physical prostheses, vehicle control systems, smart grids and
smart metering. Wearables subsume technologies such as smart watches,
smart belts, or smart plaster that gather vital data such as blood pressure,
pulse frequency, or insulin level and transmit them to the mobile application
or via Internet to a medical doctor or service station (Lanagan, Smeaton, &
Caulfield, 2011). Related new developments are characterized as “Internet of
Things,” “Smart Buildings and Cities,” “Intelligent Driving,” and “Ambient
Persuasion.” The areas of living, mobility, technical infrastructure, individual
behavior, and health are continuing growing together (ERCIM News, 2011).
Besides technical support social bonds are crucial for independent living
and quality of life. As families more often are distributed in different places,
neighborhoods and communities become more important for the elderly,
who are not as mobile as younger age groups (Rosenbloom, 2003). Local
communities become a central resource for elderlies, not only for support,
but also for conviviality, empowerment and participation. Developments
in social bonds and new technologies both shape the increasing third and
fourth period of life.

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CLASSIC FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
AMBIENT ASSISTED LIVING
Facing the big success of ICT, researchers have been trying to bring intelligent artifacts into private homes for decades. Systems and services aim at
meeting the needs for an aging society, providing access to the information
society, empower people to participate in society and improve their quality
of living. In pilot projects home automation is combined with health issues,
such as the EU-initiatives “SAFE21,” “TeleCare for Seniors,” or “IST@home”
(all projects listed at www.aal-europe.eu). In the US, the “AwareHome” in
Atlanta Georgia, the “Blacksburg Electronic Village” in Virginia, “At home
and in touch” in Columbia, or smart homes in Edinburgh and York in the
UK can be named.
Nonetheless, a breakthrough cannot yet be recognized, because apart from
pilot projects AAL-technology is barely prevalent in senior households. Reasons for the reluctance of housing companies and private owners are manifold and can be attributed to reliability and knowledge combined with high
costs for installations and maintenance as well as missing business models or even aesthetical reasons. Housing companies and scientists who conducted pilot projects often experience disappointments, because the needs of
elderly people are not considered adequately (Spellerberg & Schelisch, 2012;
Wichert, Furari, Kung, & Tazari, 2012; Salvi, Colomer, Arredondo, & Walderhaug, 2012). First, projects had to rely on a slow internet on one hand and
on the other hand failed to address human anxieties and needs adequately
(Moran, 1993). Older people were regarded as customers, subjects to data
collection and not as co-creators, having an interactive engagement with the
system (Loader et al., 2009). Until now it is not clear which technological concepts and which single devices are of use for elderly people (Haigh, Kiff, &
Ho, 2006; van Berlo, van den Heuvel, Nap, Bierhoff, & Rijnen, 2012). Acceptance, social acceptability, utility, and usability are criteria that have to be
met for achieving autonomy, support, and social inclusion of older people
(Kuneva et al., 2010). One solution can be seen in the combination of social
support and technical assistance—such as AAL—enabling elderly people to
live independently as long as possible.
SOCIAL BONDS
Social bonds are understood as relationships individuals have with others
based on a sense of belonging (Lin, 1986). According to the results of various
representative studies (German General Social Survey. Retrieved from
www.gesis.org/en/allbus) elderly people have a slightly above average
frequency of neighborhood contacts, and are generally satisfied with the

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

5

relationships in their neighborhoods. Gerontologist have stressed that the
significance of close spatial contacts increases with age, due among other to
increasing restrictions on mobility, and hence a reduced radius of contacts,
reduction in size of households, and the thinning out of social networks (Oh,
2003; Heuwinkel & Borchers, 1999). Elderly people, moreover, generally
spend a larger proportion of their time in their dwellings or in their immediate vicinity, which increases the probability of contact with neighbors
(Saup, 1993). An extended period of residence at a single place, which is
often the case for elderly people, increases the probability of getting to know
one another. The resulting closer ties to one’s place of residence are also
expressed in the desire not to change one’s living situation (cf. e.g., Banse,
Oertel, & Deilmann, 2008; Höpflinger, 2004).
Emergency help, communications, and social control are functions that
are expected of neighbors, and are fulfilled by them (cf. Hamm, 2000).
However, support activities in neighborhoods are generally assumed as
subsidiary at the other reference groups and institutions (cf. Künemund &
Hollstein, 2005, p. 253). People normally do not want to depend on their
direct neighbors. They do not want to violate the principle of reciprocity, and
feel ashamed if they cannot give back what they get (cf. Putnam, Leonardi, &
Nanetti, 1993). The benefits of social proximity, “everyday life-worlds,” and
“place-based communities” (Davies & Herbert, 1993) cannot replace social
service provision.
Especially in the context of demographic change, the activation of
neighborhoods is an approach which is supported by social planners and
policymakers in order to compensate for supply deficiencies. A lack of
neighborhood support is seen as disadvantageous for individual integration
and societal cohesion. However, neighborhood and community relations are
not always seen as different concepts (Blokland, 2003). Spatial proximity in
and of itself does not create community ties; only emotionally oriented relationships result in the creation of communities (see also Gottdiener & Budd,
2005, p. 11; Smith, 2001). Closer interactive relationships, such as regular
assistance or visiting one another are more common if other similarities also
exist, particularly similar lifestyles. Hence, the likelihood of interaction and
assistance are more common in socially homogenous neighborhoods that
in heterogeneous neighborhoods. Putnam (2000) declared that communities
are vanishing in the US, but since the start of the Internet the term community
gets new meanings, as geographical limitations are less important to stay in
touch and—as retirement communities still are not very widespread—the
need for social contacts and social bonds may be enhanced by ICT.

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CUTTING-EDGE RESEARCH
After 25 years of experiences with smart homes, new solutions and functions
can be identified. Displays are more user-friendly and less complicated and
older people are more attracted to computers and the internet. In the year
2013, 30% of older German men and women aged 70 and older were “online,”
the proportion of persons in their 60s was much higher (64%; Initiative D21,
2013). Similar numbers can be found in the US, where 57% aged 65 and older
use the internet (87% of American adults; Fox & Rainie, 2014). The majority
of two thirds of internet users proclaim that online communication strengthened relationships with friends and family members, instead of weakening
them. Use of media and social contacts are the most frequent leisure activities of elderlies, such as conversations, watching TV, reading, listening to
the radio, visiting friends, dining out, shopping, or playing games (Strain,
Grabusic, Searle, & Dunn, 2002; Spellerberg, 2014; Adams, Leibbrandt, &
Moon, 2011).
In the following paragraph a research project in Germany is described,
fostering a combination and mutual development of both aspects of quality
of life, newest technical standard as well as sense of community and
belonging. The project in the German city of Kaiserslautern emerged from
a cooperation of the University of Kaiserslautern and a local housing company. The ambient technology comprises of home automation components,
such as motion detectors, door, and window reed contacts, wall switches, a
door camera, remote controlled door openers, and others. The core element
of the AAL-technology is a touchscreen PC called PAUL, the personal
assistive unit for living,1 which 19 participating households were equipped
with in 2007. PAUL provides—functionalities for comfort (e.g., electric
shutters), entertainment (e.g., Internet access, electronic bulletin forum,
web radio, serious games), safety functions (e.g., video entry phone), and
communication (videotelephony). The data sent by the home automation
sensors is used for monitoring the activity of a user. Any untypical inactivity
period detected in the tenants’ apartments may indicate a potential emergency, like falls. In this case, PAUL would automatically trigger an alarm
(Floeck, Litz, & Rodner, 2011; Litz & Gross, 2008). The design of the display
(functions, colors, numbers, symbols, pictures) was developed with the
input of the (future) users. The evaluation of the requirements, experiences
and acceptance of technical solutions showed that PAUL is operated with
ease and is used in manifold and different ways, and in most cases on a
regular day-to-day basis (Floeck, Litz, & Spellerberg, 2012). For the tenants,
the implemented technical devices do not represent “technology,” as they
1. In late 2011 the trademark rights of “PAUL” were sold to CIBEK technology & trading GmbH
(CIBEK), while research and development in the research project continued.

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

7

would think of technology being complicated and can only be understood
using a manual. Instead, most features were inconspicuously integrated
into their everyday life and adopted playfully, although the features of
PAUL met with differing levels of acceptance and there are a few nonusers
(Schelisch, 2014).
Next to technology, social integration played an important part in the
project. Already a few weeks after moving in, the residents had begun
forming a community: they organize afternoon coffee parties as well as
excursions, watch TV together, and look after each other. Tenants organized
a computer course for those, who were interested in working with a PC.
Trust toward the AAL-system is enhanced through the community building
process, as “PAUL” is a connectional topic of conversation (Spellerberg,
2010). Furthermore, the usage of the touch screen-PC PAUL is related to
social contact, self-esteem, safety feeling and entertainment. The decisive
factors for feeling at home are primarily the close-knit community, respectively the fact of not being alone (anymore) and the fact that the tenants
feel comfortable in their apartments and in the building. Two thirds of the
respondents call the house their (new) home (Floeck et al., 2012). The older
people, most of them between 60 and 80 years old, not only enjoy meetings,
outings, and new friendships, but also started to compare their use of and the
bill for energy, heating, and water supply, which is considered quite private
information. They found out that meters did not work and that meters were
assigned to wrong households. The landlord prevented the tenants from
getting the mismanagement of the city-owned supplier published in the
local newspaper. Mutual trust, self-confidence, and community enabled the
older persons (nonacademic with one exception) to disclose mistakes and
take things very actively into their own hands.
In the project, living in the social community with neighbors and preserving this integration were considered crucial factors for a good quality of life.
Also, the advanced technology including transponders to open the entrance
door and the AAL-features as well as barrier-free flats, living in the inner
parts of the city and access to social and medical infrastructure were positively evaluated (Spellerberg, 2010). Similar approaches can be identified in
so-called smart communities, which foster social learning and social inclusion using ICT: “a holistic approach to helping entire communities go online
to connect to local governments, schools, businesses, citizens, and health and
social services in order to create specific services to address local objectives
and to help advance collective skills and capacities” (Hollands, 2008, p. 309;
similar Coe, Paquet, & Roy, 2001).

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KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
To reach broader acceptance and new steps toward a socio-technical support
system it will be necessary to continue developing technology and accompanying service packages in close contact with the end-users (elderlies, carers
and relatives, and institutions and enterprises). Devices and functions should
be designed “ … to be utilized socially in ways that empower and educate
people, and get them involved in a political debate about their own lives and
the urban environment that they inhabit” (Hollands, 2008, p. 315). Besides
technical solutions it is still necessary to find specific forms of service organizations which fit into the established structures. An interdisciplinary and
trans-disciplinary approach is necessary, including information and communication technology, housing research, spatial planning, and social sciences.
Furthermore, ageing in place needs to overcome the divide between housing, service providers, commercial services, and the medical sector. More
and more, information and communication technology is essential to integrate services of general interest and to guarantee access to information and
entertainment and enhance personal contact.
However, social exclusion via lack of access to the Internet seems to be a
new societal challenge. Furthermore, possibilities of surveillance (dataveillance), loss of data ownership, digital inequality, outcasts, and adverse affection have to be taken into account as negative aspects in the development
toward multifaceted technical and social connectedness. In order to avoid
undesirable effects of AAL-technology, ethical decision making is demanded,
considering the principles of autonomy of persons, benefits, avoidance of
harm and justice.
The neighborhood approach is promising for ageing in place and using
ICT. Firstly, adapted houses, an accessible environment and adequate care
facilities are basic elements for quality of life. Secondly, neighborhood support is seen as advantageous for individual integration and societal cohesion
(Richardson, 2008, 2012). Thirdly, ICT allows new possibilities for Active and
Assisted living, for example, networking on a broader basis, communication
via videotelephony, access local information, playing games, coordinating
activities such as shopping, baking, or cooking together and getting advice
and support. This potential and the everyday local practices also include
a large, hardly tapped potential for new ideas, and their realization that
extends beyond the realm of leisure and cultural activities into the field
of government policy, to include services and participation. Regarding the
share of computer literate senior citizens, intuitively usable information
technologies may contribute to a further closure of the “digital divide”
between young and old (Korupp & Szydlik, 2005).

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9

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ANNETTE SPELLERBERG SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Since 2008 Annette Spellerberg is full professor of urban sociology at the
University of Kaiserslautern (www.spellerberg-stadtsoziologie.de), where
she started as an assistant professor (2002–2008). She was born in Bad
Dribung, Germany, and received her training in sociology, psychology and
education science at the Free University of Berlin (Diploma 1987; PhD 1995).
Annette Spellerberg worked as a researcher at the FU Berlin (1987–1989),
at the Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin (WZB; Social Science Research Center)
(1990–1997) and a research assistant at Bamberg University (2000–2002). In
the academic year 1997–1998 she was a fellow at the Center for Advanced
Study in the Behavioral Sciences in Stanford. She published six books
and wrote numerous articles on lifestyle, place identity, urban sociology,
demographic change and housing.
Areas of Work: Urban and regional sociology, social inequality, quality of
life, lifestyles, housing, sociology of ageing.
LYNN SCHELISCH SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Lynn Schelisch is a PhD candidate in spatial planning and works as a
research associate at the Department of Urban sociology at the University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. She graduated from the University of
Kaiserslautern in 2007 and holds a degree in spatial planning, focusing on

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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

urban sociology. Her areas of work include research on user acceptance
of technologies for the elderly, technically assisted housing, smart home,
cooperative housing and collaborative housing.
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van Anders and Peter B. Gray


Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By
Technology and Social Bonds
ANNETTE SPELLERBERG and LYNN SCHELISCH

Abstract
Global ageing is a challenge, particularly with the high speed of the ageing process. As the orientation toward nuclear families without extended family members is
growing and the number of children is decreasing, fewer senior citizens in developed
countries live under the same roof with their children as in past decades. Families are
less and less able to provide support and comfort for older people. Social communities are expected to secure the quality of life of senior citizens as well as their ability
to lead a self-reliant, autonomous life. Social policies emphasize ageing in place and
therefore the enhancement of neighborhoods and community resources. Digital technologies can contribute to the welfare of the elderly, as they offer communication
opportunities, safety functions or health support. More and more the question of
enabling contacts and service provision is increasingly based on access to broadband
and ICT.
In this essay the question is pursued as to which extent new intelligent devices in
senior households, often referred to as Ambient Assisted Living (AAL), increase comfort and safety, provide support and facilitate social contact for elderly people in their
homes. Already by now, older people are able to use assistive technologies on a regular basis and in very different ways. Modern user interfaces empower senior citizens,
ensuring information and entertainment of the Internet. AAL technologies do not
diminish direct social contact, but strengthen the sense of belonging by offering new
possibilities of getting and keeping in contact.

INTRODUCTION
Rising life expectancy combined with decreasing numbers of young people
results in an increasing weight of elderly people in relation to younger
generations (United States Census Bureau, 2011). As a global consequence,
societies rapidly age, the process of ageing is even faster in developing than in
old industrialized countries. It is expected that in 2050 over 2 billion persons
older than 60 live in the world (810 million in 2012; United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and HelpAge International, 2012), and the proportion
of elderly compared to younger generations increases significantly (2030;
European Commission, 2011). At the same time, the traditional support
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.

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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

system for the elderly decreases because of changing family structures,
for example, rural to urban migration, divorces, childless marriages and
increasing flexibility demands of the labor market (BMI, 2011; Wu & Pollard,
1998). Feminization, singularization, centenarization, and autonomy are
the key words for demographic change in developed countries (UNFPA &
HelpAge, 2012).
Welfare states differ in the responsibility they expect from families
regarding elderly care (cf. welfare typology of Esping-Andersen, 1990;
Esping-Andersen & Myles, 2009). In “social democratic” regimes, including
most Scandinavian governments, the welfare state assumes nearly all social
services, whereas countries, such as Germany or Spain, primarily involve
families and give the state a subsidiary or residual role. There are legal
obligations for adult children toward older parents and lower levels of
service in areas that are traditionally a family responsibility (e.g., long-term
care) (Haberkern & Szydlik, 2010). The global trends of a decline of shared
households and an increase in female employment are no longer compatible
with the involvement of the families in those countries. Thus, the impact of
professional care and alternative support structures increases, however, in a
culture-specific variation (Brandt, Haberkern, & Szydlik, 2009; Cornwell &
Waite, 2009).
Aging in place is the preferred option of many older people and
emphasized in social policies. Most seniors wish to stay in their
self-chosen-environment as long as possible, even if they experience a
growing loss in quality of life (Davey, 2006; Köcher & Bruttel, 2012; Vasunilashorn, Steinman, Liebig, & Pynoos, 2012). In Germany, a country with a
comparably long-term residency, 93% of the 65-year-olds and older live in
normal private apartments and houses, 3% in assisted living or congregate
living facilities and only 4% live in nursing homes (skilled care facilities;
BFW Research, 2007). A similar situation can be found in Canada, where
92% of the population aged 65 and older lives in private dwellings, 5% in
nursing homes, chronic care or long-term care hospitals and 3% in residences for senior citizens (Statistics Canada, 2011). There is no indication of
a future extension of demand for long-term care institutions, but an increase
of demand for ambulant care and support for families (Bengtson, Kim,
Myers, & Eun, 2000). Considering the constant growth of the number of
older people, the risk of social isolation, the costs for professional care, and
the lack of skilled care attendants, alternative ways of support are needed
(Loader, Hardey, & Keeble, 2009; Ziefle & Röcker, 2011). These trends enforce
developed countries to find new social and technical solutions enabling
seniors to live independently as long as possible.
In this contribution, we focus on new developments of ICT in private
households of senior citizens. A couple of years ago the term Ambient

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

3

Assisted Living (AAL) emerged in Europe. “Ambient Assisted Living enables
the provision of equipment and services for the independent living of elderly
people, via the seamless integration of info-communication technologies
within homes and extended homes, thus increasing their quality of life and
autonomy and reducing the need for being institutionalized. These include
assistance to carry out daily activities, health and activity monitoring,
enhancing safety and security, getting access to social, medical and emergency systems, and facilitating social contacts, in addition to context-based
infotainment and entertainment” (VDI/VDE, 2006, p. 1). AAL technology
requires a technology that is “invisible, embedded in the user’s surroundings, adaptive to the user’s needs, and acting autonomously” (Floeck, 2010,
p. 3). Although single devices, as well as interconnected systems in the
field of Smart Home, mainly cover aspects of comfort, safety and security,
AAL systems (also) affect aspects of health, communication, and/or social
services. AAL has become a well-established international research domain
ever since (see AALA, 2014). The newly emerged research strategy of the EU
“Horizon 2020” aims “at meeting the challenge of an aging population by
encouraging the emergence of innovative products and services based on
ICT, allowing seniors to live independently, in order to improve their quality
of life and autonomy and reduce the cost of their care” (European Commission, 2014). In this follow-up program, the term Ambient was replaced
by “Active,” as a more understandable and person-centered term: Active
and Assisted Living (European Commission, 2014). cyber-physical systems
(CPS, Baheti & Gill, 2011) combine computation and physical processes, for
example in physical prostheses, vehicle control systems, smart grids and
smart metering. Wearables subsume technologies such as smart watches,
smart belts, or smart plaster that gather vital data such as blood pressure,
pulse frequency, or insulin level and transmit them to the mobile application
or via Internet to a medical doctor or service station (Lanagan, Smeaton, &
Caulfield, 2011). Related new developments are characterized as “Internet of
Things,” “Smart Buildings and Cities,” “Intelligent Driving,” and “Ambient
Persuasion.” The areas of living, mobility, technical infrastructure, individual
behavior, and health are continuing growing together (ERCIM News, 2011).
Besides technical support social bonds are crucial for independent living
and quality of life. As families more often are distributed in different places,
neighborhoods and communities become more important for the elderly,
who are not as mobile as younger age groups (Rosenbloom, 2003). Local
communities become a central resource for elderlies, not only for support,
but also for conviviality, empowerment and participation. Developments
in social bonds and new technologies both shape the increasing third and
fourth period of life.

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CLASSIC FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
AMBIENT ASSISTED LIVING
Facing the big success of ICT, researchers have been trying to bring intelligent artifacts into private homes for decades. Systems and services aim at
meeting the needs for an aging society, providing access to the information
society, empower people to participate in society and improve their quality
of living. In pilot projects home automation is combined with health issues,
such as the EU-initiatives “SAFE21,” “TeleCare for Seniors,” or “IST@home”
(all projects listed at www.aal-europe.eu). In the US, the “AwareHome” in
Atlanta Georgia, the “Blacksburg Electronic Village” in Virginia, “At home
and in touch” in Columbia, or smart homes in Edinburgh and York in the
UK can be named.
Nonetheless, a breakthrough cannot yet be recognized, because apart from
pilot projects AAL-technology is barely prevalent in senior households. Reasons for the reluctance of housing companies and private owners are manifold and can be attributed to reliability and knowledge combined with high
costs for installations and maintenance as well as missing business models or even aesthetical reasons. Housing companies and scientists who conducted pilot projects often experience disappointments, because the needs of
elderly people are not considered adequately (Spellerberg & Schelisch, 2012;
Wichert, Furari, Kung, & Tazari, 2012; Salvi, Colomer, Arredondo, & Walderhaug, 2012). First, projects had to rely on a slow internet on one hand and
on the other hand failed to address human anxieties and needs adequately
(Moran, 1993). Older people were regarded as customers, subjects to data
collection and not as co-creators, having an interactive engagement with the
system (Loader et al., 2009). Until now it is not clear which technological concepts and which single devices are of use for elderly people (Haigh, Kiff, &
Ho, 2006; van Berlo, van den Heuvel, Nap, Bierhoff, & Rijnen, 2012). Acceptance, social acceptability, utility, and usability are criteria that have to be
met for achieving autonomy, support, and social inclusion of older people
(Kuneva et al., 2010). One solution can be seen in the combination of social
support and technical assistance—such as AAL—enabling elderly people to
live independently as long as possible.
SOCIAL BONDS
Social bonds are understood as relationships individuals have with others
based on a sense of belonging (Lin, 1986). According to the results of various
representative studies (German General Social Survey. Retrieved from
www.gesis.org/en/allbus) elderly people have a slightly above average
frequency of neighborhood contacts, and are generally satisfied with the

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

5

relationships in their neighborhoods. Gerontologist have stressed that the
significance of close spatial contacts increases with age, due among other to
increasing restrictions on mobility, and hence a reduced radius of contacts,
reduction in size of households, and the thinning out of social networks (Oh,
2003; Heuwinkel & Borchers, 1999). Elderly people, moreover, generally
spend a larger proportion of their time in their dwellings or in their immediate vicinity, which increases the probability of contact with neighbors
(Saup, 1993). An extended period of residence at a single place, which is
often the case for elderly people, increases the probability of getting to know
one another. The resulting closer ties to one’s place of residence are also
expressed in the desire not to change one’s living situation (cf. e.g., Banse,
Oertel, & Deilmann, 2008; Höpflinger, 2004).
Emergency help, communications, and social control are functions that
are expected of neighbors, and are fulfilled by them (cf. Hamm, 2000).
However, support activities in neighborhoods are generally assumed as
subsidiary at the other reference groups and institutions (cf. Künemund &
Hollstein, 2005, p. 253). People normally do not want to depend on their
direct neighbors. They do not want to violate the principle of reciprocity, and
feel ashamed if they cannot give back what they get (cf. Putnam, Leonardi, &
Nanetti, 1993). The benefits of social proximity, “everyday life-worlds,” and
“place-based communities” (Davies & Herbert, 1993) cannot replace social
service provision.
Especially in the context of demographic change, the activation of
neighborhoods is an approach which is supported by social planners and
policymakers in order to compensate for supply deficiencies. A lack of
neighborhood support is seen as disadvantageous for individual integration
and societal cohesion. However, neighborhood and community relations are
not always seen as different concepts (Blokland, 2003). Spatial proximity in
and of itself does not create community ties; only emotionally oriented relationships result in the creation of communities (see also Gottdiener & Budd,
2005, p. 11; Smith, 2001). Closer interactive relationships, such as regular
assistance or visiting one another are more common if other similarities also
exist, particularly similar lifestyles. Hence, the likelihood of interaction and
assistance are more common in socially homogenous neighborhoods that
in heterogeneous neighborhoods. Putnam (2000) declared that communities
are vanishing in the US, but since the start of the Internet the term community
gets new meanings, as geographical limitations are less important to stay in
touch and—as retirement communities still are not very widespread—the
need for social contacts and social bonds may be enhanced by ICT.

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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

CUTTING-EDGE RESEARCH
After 25 years of experiences with smart homes, new solutions and functions
can be identified. Displays are more user-friendly and less complicated and
older people are more attracted to computers and the internet. In the year
2013, 30% of older German men and women aged 70 and older were “online,”
the proportion of persons in their 60s was much higher (64%; Initiative D21,
2013). Similar numbers can be found in the US, where 57% aged 65 and older
use the internet (87% of American adults; Fox & Rainie, 2014). The majority
of two thirds of internet users proclaim that online communication strengthened relationships with friends and family members, instead of weakening
them. Use of media and social contacts are the most frequent leisure activities of elderlies, such as conversations, watching TV, reading, listening to
the radio, visiting friends, dining out, shopping, or playing games (Strain,
Grabusic, Searle, & Dunn, 2002; Spellerberg, 2014; Adams, Leibbrandt, &
Moon, 2011).
In the following paragraph a research project in Germany is described,
fostering a combination and mutual development of both aspects of quality
of life, newest technical standard as well as sense of community and
belonging. The project in the German city of Kaiserslautern emerged from
a cooperation of the University of Kaiserslautern and a local housing company. The ambient technology comprises of home automation components,
such as motion detectors, door, and window reed contacts, wall switches, a
door camera, remote controlled door openers, and others. The core element
of the AAL-technology is a touchscreen PC called PAUL, the personal
assistive unit for living,1 which 19 participating households were equipped
with in 2007. PAUL provides—functionalities for comfort (e.g., electric
shutters), entertainment (e.g., Internet access, electronic bulletin forum,
web radio, serious games), safety functions (e.g., video entry phone), and
communication (videotelephony). The data sent by the home automation
sensors is used for monitoring the activity of a user. Any untypical inactivity
period detected in the tenants’ apartments may indicate a potential emergency, like falls. In this case, PAUL would automatically trigger an alarm
(Floeck, Litz, & Rodner, 2011; Litz & Gross, 2008). The design of the display
(functions, colors, numbers, symbols, pictures) was developed with the
input of the (future) users. The evaluation of the requirements, experiences
and acceptance of technical solutions showed that PAUL is operated with
ease and is used in manifold and different ways, and in most cases on a
regular day-to-day basis (Floeck, Litz, & Spellerberg, 2012). For the tenants,
the implemented technical devices do not represent “technology,” as they
1. In late 2011 the trademark rights of “PAUL” were sold to CIBEK technology & trading GmbH
(CIBEK), while research and development in the research project continued.

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

7

would think of technology being complicated and can only be understood
using a manual. Instead, most features were inconspicuously integrated
into their everyday life and adopted playfully, although the features of
PAUL met with differing levels of acceptance and there are a few nonusers
(Schelisch, 2014).
Next to technology, social integration played an important part in the
project. Already a few weeks after moving in, the residents had begun
forming a community: they organize afternoon coffee parties as well as
excursions, watch TV together, and look after each other. Tenants organized
a computer course for those, who were interested in working with a PC.
Trust toward the AAL-system is enhanced through the community building
process, as “PAUL” is a connectional topic of conversation (Spellerberg,
2010). Furthermore, the usage of the touch screen-PC PAUL is related to
social contact, self-esteem, safety feeling and entertainment. The decisive
factors for feeling at home are primarily the close-knit community, respectively the fact of not being alone (anymore) and the fact that the tenants
feel comfortable in their apartments and in the building. Two thirds of the
respondents call the house their (new) home (Floeck et al., 2012). The older
people, most of them between 60 and 80 years old, not only enjoy meetings,
outings, and new friendships, but also started to compare their use of and the
bill for energy, heating, and water supply, which is considered quite private
information. They found out that meters did not work and that meters were
assigned to wrong households. The landlord prevented the tenants from
getting the mismanagement of the city-owned supplier published in the
local newspaper. Mutual trust, self-confidence, and community enabled the
older persons (nonacademic with one exception) to disclose mistakes and
take things very actively into their own hands.
In the project, living in the social community with neighbors and preserving this integration were considered crucial factors for a good quality of life.
Also, the advanced technology including transponders to open the entrance
door and the AAL-features as well as barrier-free flats, living in the inner
parts of the city and access to social and medical infrastructure were positively evaluated (Spellerberg, 2010). Similar approaches can be identified in
so-called smart communities, which foster social learning and social inclusion using ICT: “a holistic approach to helping entire communities go online
to connect to local governments, schools, businesses, citizens, and health and
social services in order to create specific services to address local objectives
and to help advance collective skills and capacities” (Hollands, 2008, p. 309;
similar Coe, Paquet, & Roy, 2001).

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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
To reach broader acceptance and new steps toward a socio-technical support
system it will be necessary to continue developing technology and accompanying service packages in close contact with the end-users (elderlies, carers
and relatives, and institutions and enterprises). Devices and functions should
be designed “ … to be utilized socially in ways that empower and educate
people, and get them involved in a political debate about their own lives and
the urban environment that they inhabit” (Hollands, 2008, p. 315). Besides
technical solutions it is still necessary to find specific forms of service organizations which fit into the established structures. An interdisciplinary and
trans-disciplinary approach is necessary, including information and communication technology, housing research, spatial planning, and social sciences.
Furthermore, ageing in place needs to overcome the divide between housing, service providers, commercial services, and the medical sector. More
and more, information and communication technology is essential to integrate services of general interest and to guarantee access to information and
entertainment and enhance personal contact.
However, social exclusion via lack of access to the Internet seems to be a
new societal challenge. Furthermore, possibilities of surveillance (dataveillance), loss of data ownership, digital inequality, outcasts, and adverse affection have to be taken into account as negative aspects in the development
toward multifaceted technical and social connectedness. In order to avoid
undesirable effects of AAL-technology, ethical decision making is demanded,
considering the principles of autonomy of persons, benefits, avoidance of
harm and justice.
The neighborhood approach is promising for ageing in place and using
ICT. Firstly, adapted houses, an accessible environment and adequate care
facilities are basic elements for quality of life. Secondly, neighborhood support is seen as advantageous for individual integration and societal cohesion
(Richardson, 2008, 2012). Thirdly, ICT allows new possibilities for Active and
Assisted living, for example, networking on a broader basis, communication
via videotelephony, access local information, playing games, coordinating
activities such as shopping, baking, or cooking together and getting advice
and support. This potential and the everyday local practices also include
a large, hardly tapped potential for new ideas, and their realization that
extends beyond the realm of leisure and cultural activities into the field
of government policy, to include services and participation. Regarding the
share of computer literate senior citizens, intuitively usable information
technologies may contribute to a further closure of the “digital divide”
between young and old (Korupp & Szydlik, 2005).

Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds

9

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Reference.

ANNETTE SPELLERBERG SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Since 2008 Annette Spellerberg is full professor of urban sociology at the
University of Kaiserslautern (www.spellerberg-stadtsoziologie.de), where
she started as an assistant professor (2002–2008). She was born in Bad
Dribung, Germany, and received her training in sociology, psychology and
education science at the Free University of Berlin (Diploma 1987; PhD 1995).
Annette Spellerberg worked as a researcher at the FU Berlin (1987–1989),
at the Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin (WZB; Social Science Research Center)
(1990–1997) and a research assistant at Bamberg University (2000–2002). In
the academic year 1997–1998 she was a fellow at the Center for Advanced
Study in the Behavioral Sciences in Stanford. She published six books
and wrote numerous articles on lifestyle, place identity, urban sociology,
demographic change and housing.
Areas of Work: Urban and regional sociology, social inequality, quality of
life, lifestyles, housing, sociology of ageing.
LYNN SCHELISCH SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Lynn Schelisch is a PhD candidate in spatial planning and works as a
research associate at the Department of Urban sociology at the University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. She graduated from the University of
Kaiserslautern in 2007 and holds a degree in spatial planning, focusing on

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urban sociology. Her areas of work include research on user acceptance
of technologies for the elderly, technically assisted housing, smart home,
cooperative housing and collaborative housing.
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Herd Behavior (Psychology), Tatsuya Kameda and Reid Hastie
Cultural Neuroscience: Connecting Culture, Brain, and Genes (Psychology),
Shinobu Kitayama and Sarah Huff
Emotion and Intergroup Relations (Psychology), Diane M. Mackie et al.
A Bio-Social-Cultural Approach to Early Cognitive Development: Entering
the Community of Minds (Psychology), Katherine Nelson
Gestural Communication in Nonhuman Species (Anthropology), Simone Pika
Social Relationships and Health in Older Adulthood (Psychology), Theodore
F. Robles and Josephine A. Menkin
Vocal Communication in Primates (Anthropology), Katie E. Slocombe
Social Classification (Sociology), Elizabeth G. Pontikes
Creativity in Teams (Psychology), Leigh L. Thompson and Elizabeth Ruth
Wilson
Social Neuroendocrine Approaches to Relationships (Anthropology), Sari M.
van Anders and Peter B. Gray



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Emerging Trends: Shaping Age By Technology and Social Bonds