Positive Development among Diverse Youth
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Positive Development
among Diverse Youth
RICHARD M. LERNER, MARY H. BUCKINGHAM, ROBEY B. CHAMPINE,
KATHLEEN N. GREENMAN, DANIEL J. A. WARREN, and MICHELLE B. WEINER
Abstract
The positive youth development (PYD) perspective is based on the notion that all
young people possess strengths and the capacity for healthy growth. The key hypothesis within the PYD perspective is that thriving occurs when the strengths of youth
are aligned across adolescence with ecological resources (or “assets”) that promote
positive, healthy development (e.g., assets such as high-quality parenting, mentoring, teaching, or coaching; effective youth development programs; or opportunities
for youth to participate in and take leadership of valued family, school, and community activities). The 4-H Study of PYD has sought to bring data to bear on these
ideas about the individual and ecological bases of PYD. We discuss several findings
derived from tests of the model of PYD forwarded by Lerner and Lerner, including
the structure of PYD, its antecedents in youth strengths and ecological developmental assets, and both positive and problematic outcomes among youth. The results of
the 4-H Study of PYD provide important insights into how individual and contextual
factors coalesce to promote adolescent thriving.
INTRODUCTION
In the early 1990s, a strengths-based vision of youth development emerged
as a result of interests among researchers and practitioners in how to
promote healthy and positive functioning among adolescents (Lerner et al.,
2013). In contrast to earlier developmental approaches that focused on
addressing adolescents’ deficits or problem behaviors, the positive youth
development (PYD) perspective is based on the notion that all young people
possess strengths and the capacity for healthy growth. The key hypothesis
within the PYD perspective is that thriving occurs when the strengths of
youth are aligned across adolescence with ecological resources (or “assets”)
that promote positive, healthy development (e.g., assets such as high-quality
parenting, mentoring, teaching, or coaching; effective youth development
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.
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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
programs; or opportunities for youth to participate in and take leadership
of valued family, school, and community activities).
There are several different models of the processes involved in PYD (e.g.,
Benson, Scales, & Syvertsen, 2011; Damon, 2008; Eccles, 2004; Hamilton &
Hamilton, 2009; Larson, 2006; Lerner et al., 2005; Masten, 2004; Spencer, 2006).
However, all models are consistent with “relational developmental systems”
theories, which posit that development is the result of mutually influential
relations between an individual and his or her multilevel (i.e., social, cultural,
natural) environment (Overton & Müeller, 2013). We discuss the features of
relational developmental systems theories, and focus on the PYD model of
Lerner and Lerner. This model of PYD has been tested more than other conceptions of PYD, and it emphasizes how individual strengths and ecological
assets interrelate to shape the course of development.
RELATIONAL DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEMS THEORIES AND PYD
Developmental science seeks to describe, explain, and optimize intraindividual (or within-person) change and interindividual (or between-person)
differences in intraindividual change (Baltes, Reese, & Nesselroade, 1977).
Today, relational developmental systems theories are at the cutting edge of
explanatory conceptions of human development (Overton & Müeller, 2013).
These theories emphasize how bidirectional (←→) relations between an individual and his or her multilevel context shape the course of development. In
other words, features of an individual’s context (e.g., institutions, social networks) can influence his or her development and, in turn, an individual can
meaningfully contribute to his or her environment (e.g., through community contribution or engaged citizenship; Zaff, Hart, Flanagan, Youniss, &
Levine, 2010). When these individual ←→ context relations benefit both the
individual and his or her ecology, or environment, they may be considered
“adaptive” (Brandtstädter, 2006). Adaptive individual ←→ context relations
increase the likelihood that adolescents will thrive (or demonstrate positive
and healthy functioning). PYD may be an instance of such adaptive relations.
FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
THE PYD PERSPECTIVE AND A FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL ←→ CONTEXT RELATIONS
The 4-H Study of PYD conducted by Lerner, Lerner, and colleagues (e.g.,
Lerner et al., 2013) draws on the model of PYD that emphasizes the ways
in which individual ←→ context relations may lead to health and positive
behavior across the adolescent period. This research aims to enhance
understanding of relations that promote thriving and prevent risk behaviors
among adolescents. Within the 4-H Study, thriving is characterized by the
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
3
“Five Cs” of PYD (i.e., competence, confidence, character, connection, and
caring; Eccles & Gootman, 2002; Lerner et al., 2013; Roth & Brooks-Gunn,
2003).
As noted earlier, the key hypothesis within the PYD perspective is that
each young person has strengths, and that aligning his or her strengths with
ecological resources or assets will enhance the likelihood of positive development (Benson et al., 2011). Figure 1 illustrates the Lerner and Lerner relational
developmental systems conception of PYD.
As suggested by the model displayed in the figure, PYD involves adaptive developmental relations between the strengths of youth and ecological assets. The figure illustrates that PYD promotes positive contributions
to self, family, community, and civil society, and reduces the likelihood of
risk/problem behaviors. A key component of the model is the arrow that
feeds these outcomes back to the individual ←→ context relations, thus indicating the cyclical nature of adaptive developmental regulations. The figure
also places the model within the broader ecology of human development,
which is comprised of multiple levels of influence (e.g., biological, cultural,
or historical/temporal; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Elder, Shanahan, &
Jennings, 2015).
CUTTING-EDGE RESEARCH: EMPIRICAL SUPPORT
FOR THE FIVE CS MODEL OF PYD
To test the ideas presented in Figure 1, researchers at the Institute for Applied
Research in Youth Development (IARYD) at Tufts University launched the
4-H Study of PYD in the fall of 2002. The 4-H Study of PYD is a longitudinal
investigation that was supported by a grant from the National 4-H Council and the Altria Corporation. Data were collected annually from youth in
grades 5 through 12.
Full details of the methodology of the 4-H Study can be found in numerous
empirical publications (e.g., R.M. Lerner, J.V. Lerner, von Eye, Bowers, &
Lewin-Bizan, 2011). However, it is useful to describe briefly some key
features of this project. Fifth graders, gathered during the 2002–2003 school
year (which was wave 1 of the study), were the initial cohort within the
design of the project. Subsequent waves of the study involved the addition
of a new cohort (of youth of the current grade level of the initial cohort); this
new cohort was then followed longitudinally. Overall, across eight waves
of the study, approximately 7000 youth and 3500 of their parents from 42
states were surveyed. At all eight waves, the sample varied in race, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, family structure, rural–urban location, geographic
region, and youth program participation experiences.
4
Broader ecology of human development
Intentional selfregulation
Individuals
Social
networks
Emotions,
beliefs, values
Individual
strengths
Ecological
assets
Organismic selfregulation
Access to
resources
Institutions
Time
Character
Caring
(PHD)
–
Connection
Confidence
Positive human
development
Competence
+
Depression
Family
Criminal
behavior
Risk/problem
behaviors
Substance
abuse
Civil society
Contribution
Community
Self
Figure 1 A relational, developmental systems model of the individual ←→ context relations involved in the Lerner and Lerner
conception of the PYD developmental process.
Adaptive developmental regulations
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
5
Data were collected through the use of student and parent questionnaires,
assessments of school district administrators, and web-based or census tract
information. These data collection procedures enabled the identification of
the resources, or developmental assets, that exist in these settings of youth. In
addition, through obtaining information about the young person’s strengths
(e.g., which we explain here includes intentional self-regulation (ISR), school
engagement, and hopeful future expectations), the study assessed key individual attributes of adolescents.
Patterns of participation in out-of-school-time (OST) activities were also
assessed. These activities included, but were not limited to, youth development programs (such as 4-H, Boys & Girls Clubs, Scouts, YMCA, and Big
Brothers/Big Sisters), sports, arts and crafts, or service organizations. Information about civic engagement/civic contribution, future aspirations and
expectations, relationships with parents, friends, and other adults, and values were also measured. In addition, parents were asked about the nature
and composition of their household; their parenting style; and their education, employment, and neighborhood.
KEY FINDINGS
The findings of the 4-H Study have brought empirical information to bear on
several key ideas pertinent to the Lerner and Lerner PYD model (Figure 1).
We discuss several facets of these findings, including the structure of PYD,
its antecedents in youth strengths and ecological developmental assets, and
both positive and problematic youth outcomes.
THE STRUCTURE OF PYD
Support for the Five Cs model of PYD illustrated in Figure 1 has been provided by the 4-H Study data set from grades 5 through grades 11 (e.g., Lerner
et al., 2011). While the overall structure of PYD was maintained across grades,
at higher grades athletic competence was no longer a relevant indicator of
Competence and physical appearance significantly related to the construct
of cConfidence.
THE STRENGTHS OF YOUTH
From the relational developmental systems model of PYD, all young people
have strengths that may be capitalized on to promote thriving across the adolescent years. One example of the emerging strengths of adolescents is their
ability to contribute to their contexts. Other instances of strengths are specific
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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
self-regulations in key contexts of adolescents (e.g., being engaged in school;
Li, 2011) and having optimistic views of their futures (Schmid et al., 2011).
Intentional self-regulation. ISR is defined as an example of the individual’s
“contribution” to adaptive individual ←→ context relationships. Using the
selection (S), optimization (O), and compensation (C) (or SOC) measure
of ISR developed by Baltes, Baltes, and colleagues (e.g., Freund & Baltes,
2002), Gestsdóttir, Lerner, and colleagues (e.g., Gestsdottir, Bowers, von Eye,
Napolitano, & Lerner, 2010) found that self-regulation is a key individual
strength of youth. SOC scores related positively to indicators of PYD and
negatively to problem behaviors. However, when patterns of ISR in youth
in grade 5 to grade 11 were examined, the majority of youth experienced a
steady decline in ISR (Bowers et al., 2011). Lower levels of parental warmth,
parental monitoring, and school involvement at grade 5 predicted the
late onset of ISR. In turn, adolescents who experienced steep declines in
self-regulation reported lower levels of PYD and Contribution to their communities at grade 11. However, for youth who had high or increasingly more
positive trajectories or ISR, both PYD and Contribution scores were higher.
These findings highlight the importance of recognizing that youth have the
potential to develop in different directions. For example, despite starting at
the same low point in development, individuals have the potential to move in
different directions and, as a result, individuals have the potential to achieve
different outcomes (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1996).
Hopeful Future. Emotions, such as hope for one’s future (along with the cognitive and behavioral skills that youth need to activate ISR) and skills for
achieving future goals may also play an important role in the positive development of youth. For youth in grades 7, 8, and 9, the role of a hopeful future
expectation predicted pathways of positive and negative developmental outcomes (Schmid et al., 2011). Findings showed hopeful future was a stronger
predictor than self-regulation for PYD and Contribution. In turn, both hopeful future and self-regulation predicted PYD, but earlier hopeful expectations
for the future may be influential for later intentional self-regulation abilities.
School Engagement. School engagement depicts the way in which youth
cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally interact with the school setting.
Among 4-H Study youth in grades 5 and 6, behavioral and emotional
school engagement influenced the relationship between ecological assets
and individual strengths and academic competence, such that emotional
engagement was indirectly linked to academic competence, via behavioral
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
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engagement (Li, J.V. Lerner, & R.M. Lerner, 2010). In another study (Li &
Lerner, 2011), boys, youth of color, and youth from less advantaged families
tended to be in less favorable groups for both behavioral and emotional
engagement. Youth who experienced more positive pathways of behavioral
or emotional engagements tended to have better grades, were less depressed,
and were less likely to be involved in delinquent behaviors and drug abuse
than youth who followed less desirable pathways.
The contextual predictors of school engagement have also been studied
(Li, Lynch, Kevin, Liu, & Lerner, 2011). Girls and youth from more advantaged socioeconomic status (SES) families exhibited higher behavioral and
emotional engagement, on average, than boys and youth from less advantaged families. Peer support positively predicted behavioral and emotional
school engagement, whereas associating with misbehaving friends and bullying involvement were negatively associated with both aspects of school
engagement. “Hanging out” with friends without set plans and engaging in
excessive media use were also associated with lower behavioral engagement
in school, lower academic achievement, and higher rates of risk behaviors.
However, youth who ate dinner with their families reported higher levels
of emotional engagement, lower depression and risk behaviors, and better
grades. Engagement in civic activities was associated with higher levels of
emotional engagement.
ECOLOGICAL ASSETS AND PYD
The relationships among assets in the families, schools, and neighborhoods
of youth with positive and negative developmental outcomes were assessed
among fifth-grade youth from the 4-H Study (Theokas & Lerner, 2006). Ecological assets were placed into four categories: (i) individuals, (ii) physical
or institutional,(iii) collective activity, and (iv) accessibility, and were measured across the three contexts. Different dimensions of the family, school,
and neighborhood settings had the most comprehensive impact on the different developmental outcomes. Specifically, collective activity in the family,
accessibility in school, and human resources in the neighborhood were the
most powerful developmental assets in the ecology of youth. Across settings,
assets associated with individuals were the best predictors of PYD. Eating
dinner together as a family was one of the strongest predictors of PYD when
considering family assets.
Further analyses of the youth from Theokas and Lerner’s work (2006)
indicated that neighborhood factors interact with adolescent extracurricular activity involvement to predict PYD, depressive symptoms, and risk
behaviors, and that these relationships differed for boys and girls (Urban,
Lewin-Bizan, & Lerner, 2009). Girls who lived in lower asset neighborhoods
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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
showed higher levels of PYD and lower levels of depressive symptoms
and risk behaviors when they participated in extracurricular activities. In
contrast, girls in high-asset neighborhoods who displayed high levels of
participation in activities exhibited increased levels of risk behaviors, particularly if they lived in neighborhoods with abundant physical resources.
The opposite relationships were found in boys, with moderate to high levels
of activity involvement predicting lower levels of PYD and higher levels of
risk behaviors for boys living in lower asset neighborhoods; for boys living
in high-asset neighborhoods, activity involvement showed benefits, such as
increased levels of PYD and decreased levels of risk behaviors.
In sum, these findings point to the importance of the role of youth strengths
(e.g., intentional self-regulation skills, hopeful expectations for their futures,
and school engagement), and the importance of developmental ecological
assets (e.g., in families, schools, and neighborhoods) to promote PYD
and decrease levels of risk behaviors among youth. The results from the
4-H Study provide support for the use of the relational developmental
theory–based, PYD perspective in framing research that enhances understanding of the intricacies of the individual ←→ context relations that put
young people on a thriving journey across the adolescent period.
KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The results of the 4-H Study of PYD provide important insights into what
defines PYD and which individual and contextual factors might relate to
adolescent thriving. We believe that a relational developmental systems
approach is useful in understanding the importance of mutually influential
relations between adolescents and their real-world ecological settings.
The 4-H Study results show that youth who are developing positively are
also engaging in risk behaviors at some level, suggesting that risk behaviors
need to be studied along with positive behaviors. The multiple trajectories
of development seen in the 4-H Study point to the need for further research
aimed at understanding the factors that contribute to these individual differences. In short, although the PYD perspective replaces the deficit view of
youth as “problems to be managed” with the view that youth are “resources
to be developed” (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003), evidence from the 4-H Study
nevertheless suggests that an integrative preventive–promotive focus may be
the best course to pursue in increasing the likelihood that youth will thrive.
However, in light of the importance of extending current PYD work to
address fully the diversity of America’s youth, important new research directions must be taken. Most PYD research is currently focused on adolescents
who are reasonably accessible—that is, youth who will volunteer to participate in studies and from whom consent will be provided by their parents.
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
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While, perhaps, 95% of America’s youth are included in these assessments,
the hardest to reach youth have not been identified. No existing research
examines whether the PYD model applies to youth from challenged ecological circumstances (i.e., from low SES, highly disorganized, and crime-ridden
communities), or to youth from highly mobile families, are emancipated from
their parents, or live in places that are not readily accessible (e.g., homeless
youth). There is also relatively little information about youth in extremely
privileged environments (Luthar, 2003). Nevertheless, if the PYD model is to
inform policies and programs for all of America’s youth, it is important to
gain knowledge about the applicability of the model for youth from all portions of the social-ecological and economic distributions. Such future work
needs to be certain that, if access can be attained for such youth, the measures of their behavior and development have applicability to them. Such
measurement is essential in order to understand how thriving among youth
from these diverse settings can be enhanced.
We believe that as all members of the PYD scholarly community—both
researchers and practitioners—come together in the service of making such
integration a high-priority agenda item, it will be crucial for funders of PYD
scholarship and application to take actions to support and extend such integrated work. An integrative focus on youth strengths and ecological developmental assets in research may afford the generation of evidence-based actions
that decrease risk behaviors and promote the life chances of diverse youth.
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Urban, J., Lewin-Bizan, S., & Lerner, R. M. (2009). The role of neighborhood ecological assets and activity involvement in youth developmental outcomes: Differential
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FURTHER READING
Benson, P. L. (2008). Sparks: How parents can help ignite the hidden strengths of teenagers.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Damon, W. (2008). The path to purpose: Helping our children find their calling in life. New
York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Lerner, J. V., Bowers, E. P., Minor, K., Lewin-Bizan, S., Boyd, M. J., Mueller, M. K., …
Lerner, R. M. (2007). The good teen: Rescuing adolescents from the myths of the storm
and stress years. New York, NY: The Crown Publishing Group.
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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Lerner, R. M. (2012). Positive youth development: Processes, philosophies, and
programs. In R. M. Lerner, M. A. Easterbrooks & J. Mistry (Eds.), I. B. Weiner
(Editor-in-chief), Handbook of psychology, Volume 6: Developmental psychology (2nd
ed., pp. 365–392). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Silbereisen, R. K., & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.) (2007). Approaches to positive youth development. London, England: Sage Publications.
RICHARD M. LERNER SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Richard M. Lerner is the Bergstrom Chair in Applied Developmental Science
and the Director of the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development
at Tufts University. He received his PhD in developmental psychology from
the City University of New York. Lerner has more than 650 scholarly publications, including more than 80 authored or edited books. He was the founding
editor of the Journal of Research on Adolescence and of Applied Developmental
Science, which he continues to edit. Lerner is known for his theory of relations between life-span human development and social change, and for his
research about the relations between adolescents and their peers, families,
schools, and communities. As illustrated by his 2004 book, Liberty: Thriving
and civic engagement among America’s Youth, and his 2007 book, The good teen:
Rescuing adolescence from the myth of the storm and stress years, his work integrates the study of public policies and community-based programs with the
promotion of positive youth development and youth contributions to civil
society.
MARY H. BUCKINGHAM SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Mary H. Buckingham is student in the doctoral program in the Eliot-Pearson
Department of Child Development and Human Study at Tufts University.
She is also a doctoral research assistant on the Character and Merit Project
(CAMP) within the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development.
She holds a BA in Psychology from St. Joseph’s College in New York and an
MA from Tufts University. Mary’s research interests include parental influences on the development of empathy.
ROBEY B. CHAMPINE SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Robey B. Champine is a PhD student in Applied Child Development at Tufts
University, and a research assistant at the Institute for Applied Research in
Youth Development. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and Spanish
from Smith College, a Master of Science in Criminology from the University of Pennsylvania, and a Master of Public Health from the University of
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
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Connecticut School of Medicine. Her research interests include child and adolescent health, delinquency prevention, positive youth development and the
juvenile justice system, and program and policy evaluation.
KATHLEEN N. GREENMAN SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Kathleen N. Greenman is a MA/PhD student in Applied Child Development at Tufts University. She also received her BA and an MA in Child Development at Tufts University before becoming a doctoral research assistant at
the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development. Her research interests include social and emotional experiences and needs during the transition
to adulthood and how shame and self-expression influence positive youth
development.
DANIEL J. A. WARREN SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Daniel J. A. Warren is a doctoral student in the Eliot-Pearson Department
of Child Development at Tufts University, as well as the Recruitment Manager for the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development. He completed his BS in Psychology at Northeastern University in 2001 and his MA in
Child Development at Tufts University in 2003. Before returning to Tufts, Dan
taught elementary school for 9 years in the public schools of Massachusetts
and was a founding member of the Gloucester Community Arts Charter
School. His research interests revolve around the development of contextually relevant, economically responsible, and developmentally sound school
systems.
MICHELLE B. WEINER SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Michelle B. Weiner is a doctoral student in Child Development at Tufts
University. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and Political Science
from University of Maryland, and a Master of Arts in Developmental
Psychology from San Francisco State University. Her research interests
include individual and contextual factors associated with the development of entrepreneurial intent, characteristics, and interests. Her recent
work includes a chapter in the Handbook of resilience in children titled,
“Resilience and positive youth development: A relational developmental
systems model,” a chapter in the NSSE yearbook: Engaging youth in schools:
Empirically-based models to guide future innovations titled, “Positive youth
development and its relationship to engagement: A developmental systems perspective,” an article in the Journal of Research in Adolescence titled,
“Fostering youth entrepreneurship: Preliminary findings from the young
14
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
entrepreneurs study,” and a poster titled, “The entrepreneurship intentional
self regulation questionnaire: Factorial and concurrent validation” presented at
the Society for Research on Adolescence.
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-
Positive Development
among Diverse Youth
RICHARD M. LERNER, MARY H. BUCKINGHAM, ROBEY B. CHAMPINE,
KATHLEEN N. GREENMAN, DANIEL J. A. WARREN, and MICHELLE B. WEINER
Abstract
The positive youth development (PYD) perspective is based on the notion that all
young people possess strengths and the capacity for healthy growth. The key hypothesis within the PYD perspective is that thriving occurs when the strengths of youth
are aligned across adolescence with ecological resources (or “assets”) that promote
positive, healthy development (e.g., assets such as high-quality parenting, mentoring, teaching, or coaching; effective youth development programs; or opportunities
for youth to participate in and take leadership of valued family, school, and community activities). The 4-H Study of PYD has sought to bring data to bear on these
ideas about the individual and ecological bases of PYD. We discuss several findings
derived from tests of the model of PYD forwarded by Lerner and Lerner, including
the structure of PYD, its antecedents in youth strengths and ecological developmental assets, and both positive and problematic outcomes among youth. The results of
the 4-H Study of PYD provide important insights into how individual and contextual
factors coalesce to promote adolescent thriving.
INTRODUCTION
In the early 1990s, a strengths-based vision of youth development emerged
as a result of interests among researchers and practitioners in how to
promote healthy and positive functioning among adolescents (Lerner et al.,
2013). In contrast to earlier developmental approaches that focused on
addressing adolescents’ deficits or problem behaviors, the positive youth
development (PYD) perspective is based on the notion that all young people
possess strengths and the capacity for healthy growth. The key hypothesis
within the PYD perspective is that thriving occurs when the strengths of
youth are aligned across adolescence with ecological resources (or “assets”)
that promote positive, healthy development (e.g., assets such as high-quality
parenting, mentoring, teaching, or coaching; effective youth development
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.
1
2
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
programs; or opportunities for youth to participate in and take leadership
of valued family, school, and community activities).
There are several different models of the processes involved in PYD (e.g.,
Benson, Scales, & Syvertsen, 2011; Damon, 2008; Eccles, 2004; Hamilton &
Hamilton, 2009; Larson, 2006; Lerner et al., 2005; Masten, 2004; Spencer, 2006).
However, all models are consistent with “relational developmental systems”
theories, which posit that development is the result of mutually influential
relations between an individual and his or her multilevel (i.e., social, cultural,
natural) environment (Overton & Müeller, 2013). We discuss the features of
relational developmental systems theories, and focus on the PYD model of
Lerner and Lerner. This model of PYD has been tested more than other conceptions of PYD, and it emphasizes how individual strengths and ecological
assets interrelate to shape the course of development.
RELATIONAL DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEMS THEORIES AND PYD
Developmental science seeks to describe, explain, and optimize intraindividual (or within-person) change and interindividual (or between-person)
differences in intraindividual change (Baltes, Reese, & Nesselroade, 1977).
Today, relational developmental systems theories are at the cutting edge of
explanatory conceptions of human development (Overton & Müeller, 2013).
These theories emphasize how bidirectional (←→) relations between an individual and his or her multilevel context shape the course of development. In
other words, features of an individual’s context (e.g., institutions, social networks) can influence his or her development and, in turn, an individual can
meaningfully contribute to his or her environment (e.g., through community contribution or engaged citizenship; Zaff, Hart, Flanagan, Youniss, &
Levine, 2010). When these individual ←→ context relations benefit both the
individual and his or her ecology, or environment, they may be considered
“adaptive” (Brandtstädter, 2006). Adaptive individual ←→ context relations
increase the likelihood that adolescents will thrive (or demonstrate positive
and healthy functioning). PYD may be an instance of such adaptive relations.
FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
THE PYD PERSPECTIVE AND A FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL ←→ CONTEXT RELATIONS
The 4-H Study of PYD conducted by Lerner, Lerner, and colleagues (e.g.,
Lerner et al., 2013) draws on the model of PYD that emphasizes the ways
in which individual ←→ context relations may lead to health and positive
behavior across the adolescent period. This research aims to enhance
understanding of relations that promote thriving and prevent risk behaviors
among adolescents. Within the 4-H Study, thriving is characterized by the
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
3
“Five Cs” of PYD (i.e., competence, confidence, character, connection, and
caring; Eccles & Gootman, 2002; Lerner et al., 2013; Roth & Brooks-Gunn,
2003).
As noted earlier, the key hypothesis within the PYD perspective is that
each young person has strengths, and that aligning his or her strengths with
ecological resources or assets will enhance the likelihood of positive development (Benson et al., 2011). Figure 1 illustrates the Lerner and Lerner relational
developmental systems conception of PYD.
As suggested by the model displayed in the figure, PYD involves adaptive developmental relations between the strengths of youth and ecological assets. The figure illustrates that PYD promotes positive contributions
to self, family, community, and civil society, and reduces the likelihood of
risk/problem behaviors. A key component of the model is the arrow that
feeds these outcomes back to the individual ←→ context relations, thus indicating the cyclical nature of adaptive developmental regulations. The figure
also places the model within the broader ecology of human development,
which is comprised of multiple levels of influence (e.g., biological, cultural,
or historical/temporal; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Elder, Shanahan, &
Jennings, 2015).
CUTTING-EDGE RESEARCH: EMPIRICAL SUPPORT
FOR THE FIVE CS MODEL OF PYD
To test the ideas presented in Figure 1, researchers at the Institute for Applied
Research in Youth Development (IARYD) at Tufts University launched the
4-H Study of PYD in the fall of 2002. The 4-H Study of PYD is a longitudinal
investigation that was supported by a grant from the National 4-H Council and the Altria Corporation. Data were collected annually from youth in
grades 5 through 12.
Full details of the methodology of the 4-H Study can be found in numerous
empirical publications (e.g., R.M. Lerner, J.V. Lerner, von Eye, Bowers, &
Lewin-Bizan, 2011). However, it is useful to describe briefly some key
features of this project. Fifth graders, gathered during the 2002–2003 school
year (which was wave 1 of the study), were the initial cohort within the
design of the project. Subsequent waves of the study involved the addition
of a new cohort (of youth of the current grade level of the initial cohort); this
new cohort was then followed longitudinally. Overall, across eight waves
of the study, approximately 7000 youth and 3500 of their parents from 42
states were surveyed. At all eight waves, the sample varied in race, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, family structure, rural–urban location, geographic
region, and youth program participation experiences.
4
Broader ecology of human development
Intentional selfregulation
Individuals
Social
networks
Emotions,
beliefs, values
Individual
strengths
Ecological
assets
Organismic selfregulation
Access to
resources
Institutions
Time
Character
Caring
(PHD)
–
Connection
Confidence
Positive human
development
Competence
+
Depression
Family
Criminal
behavior
Risk/problem
behaviors
Substance
abuse
Civil society
Contribution
Community
Self
Figure 1 A relational, developmental systems model of the individual ←→ context relations involved in the Lerner and Lerner
conception of the PYD developmental process.
Adaptive developmental regulations
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
5
Data were collected through the use of student and parent questionnaires,
assessments of school district administrators, and web-based or census tract
information. These data collection procedures enabled the identification of
the resources, or developmental assets, that exist in these settings of youth. In
addition, through obtaining information about the young person’s strengths
(e.g., which we explain here includes intentional self-regulation (ISR), school
engagement, and hopeful future expectations), the study assessed key individual attributes of adolescents.
Patterns of participation in out-of-school-time (OST) activities were also
assessed. These activities included, but were not limited to, youth development programs (such as 4-H, Boys & Girls Clubs, Scouts, YMCA, and Big
Brothers/Big Sisters), sports, arts and crafts, or service organizations. Information about civic engagement/civic contribution, future aspirations and
expectations, relationships with parents, friends, and other adults, and values were also measured. In addition, parents were asked about the nature
and composition of their household; their parenting style; and their education, employment, and neighborhood.
KEY FINDINGS
The findings of the 4-H Study have brought empirical information to bear on
several key ideas pertinent to the Lerner and Lerner PYD model (Figure 1).
We discuss several facets of these findings, including the structure of PYD,
its antecedents in youth strengths and ecological developmental assets, and
both positive and problematic youth outcomes.
THE STRUCTURE OF PYD
Support for the Five Cs model of PYD illustrated in Figure 1 has been provided by the 4-H Study data set from grades 5 through grades 11 (e.g., Lerner
et al., 2011). While the overall structure of PYD was maintained across grades,
at higher grades athletic competence was no longer a relevant indicator of
Competence and physical appearance significantly related to the construct
of cConfidence.
THE STRENGTHS OF YOUTH
From the relational developmental systems model of PYD, all young people
have strengths that may be capitalized on to promote thriving across the adolescent years. One example of the emerging strengths of adolescents is their
ability to contribute to their contexts. Other instances of strengths are specific
6
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
self-regulations in key contexts of adolescents (e.g., being engaged in school;
Li, 2011) and having optimistic views of their futures (Schmid et al., 2011).
Intentional self-regulation. ISR is defined as an example of the individual’s
“contribution” to adaptive individual ←→ context relationships. Using the
selection (S), optimization (O), and compensation (C) (or SOC) measure
of ISR developed by Baltes, Baltes, and colleagues (e.g., Freund & Baltes,
2002), Gestsdóttir, Lerner, and colleagues (e.g., Gestsdottir, Bowers, von Eye,
Napolitano, & Lerner, 2010) found that self-regulation is a key individual
strength of youth. SOC scores related positively to indicators of PYD and
negatively to problem behaviors. However, when patterns of ISR in youth
in grade 5 to grade 11 were examined, the majority of youth experienced a
steady decline in ISR (Bowers et al., 2011). Lower levels of parental warmth,
parental monitoring, and school involvement at grade 5 predicted the
late onset of ISR. In turn, adolescents who experienced steep declines in
self-regulation reported lower levels of PYD and Contribution to their communities at grade 11. However, for youth who had high or increasingly more
positive trajectories or ISR, both PYD and Contribution scores were higher.
These findings highlight the importance of recognizing that youth have the
potential to develop in different directions. For example, despite starting at
the same low point in development, individuals have the potential to move in
different directions and, as a result, individuals have the potential to achieve
different outcomes (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1996).
Hopeful Future. Emotions, such as hope for one’s future (along with the cognitive and behavioral skills that youth need to activate ISR) and skills for
achieving future goals may also play an important role in the positive development of youth. For youth in grades 7, 8, and 9, the role of a hopeful future
expectation predicted pathways of positive and negative developmental outcomes (Schmid et al., 2011). Findings showed hopeful future was a stronger
predictor than self-regulation for PYD and Contribution. In turn, both hopeful future and self-regulation predicted PYD, but earlier hopeful expectations
for the future may be influential for later intentional self-regulation abilities.
School Engagement. School engagement depicts the way in which youth
cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally interact with the school setting.
Among 4-H Study youth in grades 5 and 6, behavioral and emotional
school engagement influenced the relationship between ecological assets
and individual strengths and academic competence, such that emotional
engagement was indirectly linked to academic competence, via behavioral
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
7
engagement (Li, J.V. Lerner, & R.M. Lerner, 2010). In another study (Li &
Lerner, 2011), boys, youth of color, and youth from less advantaged families
tended to be in less favorable groups for both behavioral and emotional
engagement. Youth who experienced more positive pathways of behavioral
or emotional engagements tended to have better grades, were less depressed,
and were less likely to be involved in delinquent behaviors and drug abuse
than youth who followed less desirable pathways.
The contextual predictors of school engagement have also been studied
(Li, Lynch, Kevin, Liu, & Lerner, 2011). Girls and youth from more advantaged socioeconomic status (SES) families exhibited higher behavioral and
emotional engagement, on average, than boys and youth from less advantaged families. Peer support positively predicted behavioral and emotional
school engagement, whereas associating with misbehaving friends and bullying involvement were negatively associated with both aspects of school
engagement. “Hanging out” with friends without set plans and engaging in
excessive media use were also associated with lower behavioral engagement
in school, lower academic achievement, and higher rates of risk behaviors.
However, youth who ate dinner with their families reported higher levels
of emotional engagement, lower depression and risk behaviors, and better
grades. Engagement in civic activities was associated with higher levels of
emotional engagement.
ECOLOGICAL ASSETS AND PYD
The relationships among assets in the families, schools, and neighborhoods
of youth with positive and negative developmental outcomes were assessed
among fifth-grade youth from the 4-H Study (Theokas & Lerner, 2006). Ecological assets were placed into four categories: (i) individuals, (ii) physical
or institutional,(iii) collective activity, and (iv) accessibility, and were measured across the three contexts. Different dimensions of the family, school,
and neighborhood settings had the most comprehensive impact on the different developmental outcomes. Specifically, collective activity in the family,
accessibility in school, and human resources in the neighborhood were the
most powerful developmental assets in the ecology of youth. Across settings,
assets associated with individuals were the best predictors of PYD. Eating
dinner together as a family was one of the strongest predictors of PYD when
considering family assets.
Further analyses of the youth from Theokas and Lerner’s work (2006)
indicated that neighborhood factors interact with adolescent extracurricular activity involvement to predict PYD, depressive symptoms, and risk
behaviors, and that these relationships differed for boys and girls (Urban,
Lewin-Bizan, & Lerner, 2009). Girls who lived in lower asset neighborhoods
8
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
showed higher levels of PYD and lower levels of depressive symptoms
and risk behaviors when they participated in extracurricular activities. In
contrast, girls in high-asset neighborhoods who displayed high levels of
participation in activities exhibited increased levels of risk behaviors, particularly if they lived in neighborhoods with abundant physical resources.
The opposite relationships were found in boys, with moderate to high levels
of activity involvement predicting lower levels of PYD and higher levels of
risk behaviors for boys living in lower asset neighborhoods; for boys living
in high-asset neighborhoods, activity involvement showed benefits, such as
increased levels of PYD and decreased levels of risk behaviors.
In sum, these findings point to the importance of the role of youth strengths
(e.g., intentional self-regulation skills, hopeful expectations for their futures,
and school engagement), and the importance of developmental ecological
assets (e.g., in families, schools, and neighborhoods) to promote PYD
and decrease levels of risk behaviors among youth. The results from the
4-H Study provide support for the use of the relational developmental
theory–based, PYD perspective in framing research that enhances understanding of the intricacies of the individual ←→ context relations that put
young people on a thriving journey across the adolescent period.
KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The results of the 4-H Study of PYD provide important insights into what
defines PYD and which individual and contextual factors might relate to
adolescent thriving. We believe that a relational developmental systems
approach is useful in understanding the importance of mutually influential
relations between adolescents and their real-world ecological settings.
The 4-H Study results show that youth who are developing positively are
also engaging in risk behaviors at some level, suggesting that risk behaviors
need to be studied along with positive behaviors. The multiple trajectories
of development seen in the 4-H Study point to the need for further research
aimed at understanding the factors that contribute to these individual differences. In short, although the PYD perspective replaces the deficit view of
youth as “problems to be managed” with the view that youth are “resources
to be developed” (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003), evidence from the 4-H Study
nevertheless suggests that an integrative preventive–promotive focus may be
the best course to pursue in increasing the likelihood that youth will thrive.
However, in light of the importance of extending current PYD work to
address fully the diversity of America’s youth, important new research directions must be taken. Most PYD research is currently focused on adolescents
who are reasonably accessible—that is, youth who will volunteer to participate in studies and from whom consent will be provided by their parents.
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
9
While, perhaps, 95% of America’s youth are included in these assessments,
the hardest to reach youth have not been identified. No existing research
examines whether the PYD model applies to youth from challenged ecological circumstances (i.e., from low SES, highly disorganized, and crime-ridden
communities), or to youth from highly mobile families, are emancipated from
their parents, or live in places that are not readily accessible (e.g., homeless
youth). There is also relatively little information about youth in extremely
privileged environments (Luthar, 2003). Nevertheless, if the PYD model is to
inform policies and programs for all of America’s youth, it is important to
gain knowledge about the applicability of the model for youth from all portions of the social-ecological and economic distributions. Such future work
needs to be certain that, if access can be attained for such youth, the measures of their behavior and development have applicability to them. Such
measurement is essential in order to understand how thriving among youth
from these diverse settings can be enhanced.
We believe that as all members of the PYD scholarly community—both
researchers and practitioners—come together in the service of making such
integration a high-priority agenda item, it will be crucial for funders of PYD
scholarship and application to take actions to support and extend such integrated work. An integrative focus on youth strengths and ecological developmental assets in research may afford the generation of evidence-based actions
that decrease risk behaviors and promote the life chances of diverse youth.
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FURTHER READING
Benson, P. L. (2008). Sparks: How parents can help ignite the hidden strengths of teenagers.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Damon, W. (2008). The path to purpose: Helping our children find their calling in life. New
York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Lerner, J. V., Bowers, E. P., Minor, K., Lewin-Bizan, S., Boyd, M. J., Mueller, M. K., …
Lerner, R. M. (2007). The good teen: Rescuing adolescents from the myths of the storm
and stress years. New York, NY: The Crown Publishing Group.
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EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Lerner, R. M. (2012). Positive youth development: Processes, philosophies, and
programs. In R. M. Lerner, M. A. Easterbrooks & J. Mistry (Eds.), I. B. Weiner
(Editor-in-chief), Handbook of psychology, Volume 6: Developmental psychology (2nd
ed., pp. 365–392). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Silbereisen, R. K., & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.) (2007). Approaches to positive youth development. London, England: Sage Publications.
RICHARD M. LERNER SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Richard M. Lerner is the Bergstrom Chair in Applied Developmental Science
and the Director of the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development
at Tufts University. He received his PhD in developmental psychology from
the City University of New York. Lerner has more than 650 scholarly publications, including more than 80 authored or edited books. He was the founding
editor of the Journal of Research on Adolescence and of Applied Developmental
Science, which he continues to edit. Lerner is known for his theory of relations between life-span human development and social change, and for his
research about the relations between adolescents and their peers, families,
schools, and communities. As illustrated by his 2004 book, Liberty: Thriving
and civic engagement among America’s Youth, and his 2007 book, The good teen:
Rescuing adolescence from the myth of the storm and stress years, his work integrates the study of public policies and community-based programs with the
promotion of positive youth development and youth contributions to civil
society.
MARY H. BUCKINGHAM SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Mary H. Buckingham is student in the doctoral program in the Eliot-Pearson
Department of Child Development and Human Study at Tufts University.
She is also a doctoral research assistant on the Character and Merit Project
(CAMP) within the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development.
She holds a BA in Psychology from St. Joseph’s College in New York and an
MA from Tufts University. Mary’s research interests include parental influences on the development of empathy.
ROBEY B. CHAMPINE SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Robey B. Champine is a PhD student in Applied Child Development at Tufts
University, and a research assistant at the Institute for Applied Research in
Youth Development. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and Spanish
from Smith College, a Master of Science in Criminology from the University of Pennsylvania, and a Master of Public Health from the University of
Positive Development among Diverse Youth
13
Connecticut School of Medicine. Her research interests include child and adolescent health, delinquency prevention, positive youth development and the
juvenile justice system, and program and policy evaluation.
KATHLEEN N. GREENMAN SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Kathleen N. Greenman is a MA/PhD student in Applied Child Development at Tufts University. She also received her BA and an MA in Child Development at Tufts University before becoming a doctoral research assistant at
the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development. Her research interests include social and emotional experiences and needs during the transition
to adulthood and how shame and self-expression influence positive youth
development.
DANIEL J. A. WARREN SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Daniel J. A. Warren is a doctoral student in the Eliot-Pearson Department
of Child Development at Tufts University, as well as the Recruitment Manager for the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development. He completed his BS in Psychology at Northeastern University in 2001 and his MA in
Child Development at Tufts University in 2003. Before returning to Tufts, Dan
taught elementary school for 9 years in the public schools of Massachusetts
and was a founding member of the Gloucester Community Arts Charter
School. His research interests revolve around the development of contextually relevant, economically responsible, and developmentally sound school
systems.
MICHELLE B. WEINER SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Michelle B. Weiner is a doctoral student in Child Development at Tufts
University. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and Political Science
from University of Maryland, and a Master of Arts in Developmental
Psychology from San Francisco State University. Her research interests
include individual and contextual factors associated with the development of entrepreneurial intent, characteristics, and interests. Her recent
work includes a chapter in the Handbook of resilience in children titled,
“Resilience and positive youth development: A relational developmental
systems model,” a chapter in the NSSE yearbook: Engaging youth in schools:
Empirically-based models to guide future innovations titled, “Positive youth
development and its relationship to engagement: A developmental systems perspective,” an article in the Journal of Research in Adolescence titled,
“Fostering youth entrepreneurship: Preliminary findings from the young
14
EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
entrepreneurs study,” and a poster titled, “The entrepreneurship intentional
self regulation questionnaire: Factorial and concurrent validation” presented at
the Society for Research on Adolescence.
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