Emerging Trends in The Social and Behavioral Sciences

Transnational Work Careers

Media

Part of Transnational Work Careers

Title

Transnational Work Careers

extracted text

Transnational Work Careers
ROLAND VERWIEBE

Abstract
This essay deals with transnational work careers, an issue that is relatively new in
social-scientific research and is discussed here in particular against the background
of recent migration and management research. Both disciplines consider the emergence of transnational work careers in connection with economic globalization. In
terms of methodology, most of the studies that are relevant to this issue are based
on qualitatively oriented analyses and deal empirically with a variety of regions and
nations (e.g., China, India, the United States, Canada, Germany, and Scandinavia).

INTRODUCTION
In a strict sense, transnational work careers have been marginal topics in the
social sciences, with the particular exception of migration research and some
parts of management research (e.g., Cantwell, 2011; Kreutzer & Roth, 2006;
Liu-Farrer, 2011; Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002; Suutari & Brewster, 2003).
Traditionally, migration research deals with permanent shifts in one’s place
of residence. The main causes for migration, according to the literature, are
economic. The push-and-pull model—developed in the 1960s by American
researcher Everett Lee—was for many years drawn upon as a theoretical
explanation for this kind of migration (Lee, 1966).
Only in more recent years, since the mid-1990s, migration research started
to focus on transnational forms of migration (Faist, 2000; Goldring, 1997;
Levitt, DeWind, & Vertovec, 2003; Massey, Goldring, & Durand, 1994;
Pries, 2001; Vertovec, 1999; Wimmer & Glick Schiller, 2003). Studies on
this phenomenon locate such novel transnational forms of migration in
connection with global economic processes. Migration is argued no longer
to be exclusively characterized by permanent relocations of principal residences, as more recent research indicates: The beginning of the twenty-first
century has seen a diversification of the patterns and forms of migration. We
now observe an increase in temporal, short-term, circular migration and in
transnational and chain migration.
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.

1

2

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Considering the concept of transnational work careers in this connection,
this author would like to propose to give rise to yet other accentuations.
In general, an individual’s career can be understood as a sequence of
related jobs usually pursued within one economic sector or related sectors.
Transnational work careers would be careers that extend beyond countries’
frontiers. This may apply to various forms of occupational mobility, for
example, short-term professional activities in one’s employer’s branch
abroad, frequent work-related mobility, and business trips, as well as
transnational commuting and job-related mobility in border regions. Ultimately, the concept of transnational work careers implies that transnational
commuting becomes a normal aspect of people’s everyday professional and
social life. Transnational work careers then are not typically associated with
occupational reorientations or descent, quite the contrary. This is in contrast
to many migrants’ occupational careers and their frequently committing
themselves, within migration, to employment relationships that do not
correspond with their qualifications (Berry & Bell, 2012).
FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
MIGRATION
In order to understand transnational work careers, it is important to revert to
the core concepts of migration research. The “classic approach” to migration
acts on the assumption that the primary reasons for migration are to be
found in the economy. Furthermore, migration is seen to imply a permanent
shift in one’s place of residence and economic, social, and cultural integration/assimilation within the host society. The push-and-pull model is
particularly important in explaining these forms of migration. In this model,
it is commonly assumed that migrants follow the principle of economic rationalism, acting in response to push-and-pull factors. The key push-and-pull
factors relate to the situation in the employment market and attainable individual income, respectively, which in theory are inadequate in the migrants’
country of origin and considerably more attractive in their countries of
destination (Fielding, 1993; Stark, 1993; Stark & Bloom, 1985; Todaro, 1986).
In general, this model refers to economic gains from migration, as they are
perceived by migrants and included in their decision for migration, conceptualized as differences in wages, in working conditions or available fringe
benefits. Much of migration to the United States, Canada, and Australia
empirically corresponds to these model representations. Similar arguments
apply to intra-European migration between Mediterranean countries (e.g.,
Italy, Greece, Turkey) and highly industrialized countries in Central Europe
(e.g., Belgium, Germany, France) in the second half of the twentieth century.

Transnational Work Careers

3

TRANSNATIONAL MIGRATION
Recent investigations into the various aspects of transnational migration are
also to be seen as an important element of foundational research on transnational work careers. The point of departure for this work is the idea that
the traditional distinction between temporary and permanent migration no
longer applies to many migrants as they shuttle back and forth between their
new and old home countries. The lifeworld of these so-called transmigrants
spans a variety of both domiciles and social and geographic spaces. The central argument here is that mobility across national borders is closely associated with a far-reaching process of economic, cultural, political, and social
globalization (Pries, 2001). Thus, in this view, globally active enterprises, the
new communications technology, the Internet, and the global consumption
of mass media culture all weave a network of globalized transactions of information, goods, and people, which lead to new transnational spaces beyond
customary societies and social systems.
The typical trait of transmigrants is double integration in social, cultural,
and economic domains within divergent societies, rather than medium- or
long-term and complete assimilation in their host societies. The expansion
and increasingly low-priced availability of modern forms of telecommunication and the Internet (access to information, cost-saving communication in
real time), together with transnational social networks, are important motors
promoting such double integration.
HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION
Even though research on highly qualified migrants does not explicitly
broach the issue of transnational work careers—or if so, then marginally—it
remains an important link for the present issue. Over the past two decades,
a growing number of authors in migration research has explored migration
as a process among highly qualified individuals (Amit, 2002; Beaverstock,
2002, 2005; Cheng & Yang, 1998; Koser & Salt, 1997; Martin & Lowell, 2002;
Peixoto, 2001; Salt, 1992). These scholars have argued that important causes
of increasing migration of the highly skilled have been the boost in foreign
direct investment and the growth of multinational corporations. In this
logic, highly skilled migrants are crucial to the flows of knowledge and
capital movements of international corporations, as well as their economic
strategies and success. Beaverstock’s publications can be drawn upon as
one example of this kind of research (Beaverstock, 2002, 2005; Beaverstock
& Hall, 2012): This author studies highly skilled professionals circulating
within and between transnational corporations. Beaverstock describes this
specific group of transmigrants as important constituents of the global
economic system. His research suggests that these professionals’ individual

4

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

career paths and social and business networks, stretching across national
boundaries, are the key factors that (re-)produce traits of “transnationalism” in the global cities of postindustrial economies. Correspondingly,
Beaverstock also argues that the economic competitiveness of global cities
is substantially dependent on the functioning of their global labor markets,
of which a key factor is the influx of highly skilled migrants from various
regions of the world.
CUTTING-EDGE RESEARCH
Only in more recent years does the literature include studies that explore
transnational career patterns in the narrow sense of the term. Exemplarily,
this essay deals with three important keywords in the scope of the ongoing debate: We discuss research in cross-border labor markets/transnational
commuting, transnational entrepreneurs, and the so-called expatriates.
NEW EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ON TRANSNATIONAL COMMUTERS/CROSS-BORDER LABOR
MARKETS, TRANSNATIONAL ENTREPRENEURS, AND EXPATRIATES
The emergence of transnational, cross-border labor markets has become
a cutting-edge topic. A number of studies on various cross-border labor
markets and other forms of transnational labor markets have come to light
over the past decade. In Europe, cross-border labor markets in Luxembourg
(with commuters from Belgium, France, Germany), at the Dutch-German
border, at the Swiss-Italian border, or in the Austrian-Swiss-Bavarian region
have been investigated (Baruffini, 2011; Buch, Torben, & Annekatrin, 2009;
Decoville, Durand, Sohn, & Walther, 2010; Gottholmseder & Theurl, 2007;
Verwiebe & Reinprecht, 2012-15).1 Most scholars agree that an increase in the
numbers of transnational workers has to be seen in the context of the establishment of the European Union. A turning point was the implementation
of the Maastricht Treaty (1992), according to which all Member State citizens
became entitled to unrestricted mobility within the EU (Mau & Verwiebe,
2010: 266). The cross-border labor market between the United States and
Mexico is yet another example that has recently attracted much attention
(e.g., Alegria, 2002; Davila & Mora, 2000; Mollick, Rayas, & Moncisvais,
2006; Mora & Davila, 2011). Over the past 15 years, increasing cross-border
commerce, intensified economic integration, and the growth of the Mexican
manufacturing industry after the NAFTA treaty was concluded have created
1. The labor market in Luxembourg is an exemplary and interesting object of study in this context.
Each day, Luxembourg’s labor market draws 160,000 border crossers. This amounts to 50% of those
employed in that country’s labor market. For three decades, this phenomenon has been continuously
on the rise (e.g., in 1975, only 9% of those employed were cross-border commuters) and is now taking
place in a labor market region that spans four European countries (Schmitz, Drevon, & Gerber, 2012).

Transnational Work Careers

5

many new employment opportunities for workers on both sides of the
US-Mexico border. Most available studies deal with Mexican cross-border
commuters. In turn, Mora and Davila (2011) recently developed a different
focus while examining the income situation among the US-born population
residing in the United States and working on the Mexican side of the border.
Transnational entrepreneurs and their work careers is another cutting-edge
research issue (Connelly, 2010; Drori, Honig, & Wright, 2009; Lin & Tao, 2012;
Portes, Haller, & Guarnizo, 2002; Riddle, Hrivnak, & Nielsen, 2010; Wong &
Ng, 2002). For some of these transnational entrepreneurs, seeking business
opportunities is an important reason for their migration to another country in
the first place. Other transnational entrepreneurs may have had experiences
as expatriates in a transnational corporation or transnational NGO and established their own business using this expertise, thus giving their work career
a new direction. Most of the current studies on the topic elaborate on the
ways in which transnational entrepreneurs pursue new business ventures
while relying on economic, social, cultural, and institutional opportunities
that stem from dual locations. This is the primary mode of transnational economic activities that span the national business environments of more than
one country (e.g., the countries of migrants’ origin and residence).
Finally, the more recent literature concerned with the so-called expatriates
is also crucial for understanding transnational work careers. This essay has
focused on divergent issues (e.g., Berry & Bell, 2012; Black, 1988; Cantwell,
2011; Roos, 2013; Stahl et al., 2002; Suutari & Brewster, 2003; Tung, 1998; Yan,
Zhu, & Hall, 2002). Many studies explore the various implications of expatriate careers with regard to career advancement and personal development,
as well as their families’, spouses’, and children’s situations. Differences
are also discussed between various economic sectors and organizational
contexts. Yet, other studies focus on the long-term effects of expatriate career
episodes and analyze the employment and familial situation after they
return home. These investigations frequently emphasize that expatriates
perceive deficits in corporate career management and believe that their
organizations make insufficient use of their international experience.
KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
In an increasingly globalized world, it will prove to be a task for
social-scientific research to more systematically deal with transnational
work careers. We may identify several concrete challenges in terms of
research strategy.
An initial focus for future investigations could be placed on integrating the
various research perspectives and methodical and conceptual approaches.
Interdisciplinary projects are still the exception to the rule. At present,

6

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

transnational careers are dealt with in the framework of migration research
and management research. A promising approach would consist of systematically intertwining biographical analyses (migration research) and
analyses of organizational contexts (management research).
Similarly, in terms of methodology, expansion beyond the present status
of research is conceivable. Qualitative single-case studies focusing on one or
several enterprises are predominant, while large-scale quantitative investigations and internationally comparative investigations are exceptional cases.
Such studies would be particularly important to more fully understand the
various aspects of transnational work careers. For example, we may assume
that there are differences between transnational work careers in Eastern
Africa and Southeast Asia, or the United States and Europe. However, we
still poorly understand in what ways these differences persist and what
magnitude they may assume.
This author suggests that the largest challenge by far is the more systematic
application of biographical designs, life-course methods, and panel designs.
Turning to such novel methods of collecting data would serve to generate
a class of insights that is rare in this form. Initial studies working with a
panel design (e.g., Suutari & Brewster, 2003) have indicated the associated
potential. Little is known as yet about the entire life courses of transnationally mobile individuals, as research is dominated by studies that concentrate
on singular life-course episodes.
Thematically—and admittedly formulated in sharp terms—research
is required to exceed the prevalent focus on highly skilled middle-aged
white men. We still know little about transnational work careers of individuals with medium-level qualifications. Recent research on cross-border
commuters indeed indicates the presence of such groups, for example,
in the Austrian-Slovakian-Hungarian region or in the US-Mexico border
region. Another research desideratum to be addressed is a more systematic
investigation of the specific conditions governing women’s transnational
work careers. Finally, we still have much to learn about transnational work
careers between African countries and Latin American societies.
SUMMARY
Transnational work careers can be understood in terms of sequences of
related jobs pursued within one economic sector or related sectors across
national boundaries. The concept of transnational work careers implies that
transnational mobility may become a normal component of migrants’ occupational life and social lifeworld. Job-related episodes abroad are a part of
occupational biographies and thus temporary by definition. Such episodes
can be realized in various economic sectors, including industrial production,

Transnational Work Careers

7

various areas of the financial and other services sectors, NGOs, research
institutions, and universities. Transnational work careers are expected
to expand even further than today, motored by continuous processes of
globalization and transnational processes of integration in Europe, Asia,
Africa, and the Americas.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Alegria, T. (2002). Demand and supply of Mexican cross border workers. Journal of
Borderlands Studies, 17, 37–55.
Amit, V. (2002). The moving ‘Expert’. A study of mobile professionals in the Cayman Islands and North America. In N. N. Sørensen & K. F. Olwig (Eds.), Work and
migration. Life and livelihoods in a globalizing world (pp. 145–160). London, England:
Routledge.
Baruffini, M. (2011). Cross-border commuting in the Swiss-Italian region; labour market effects of progressive integration. In R. H. Christa Larsen, A. Schmid, M. Bittner & F. Clément (Eds.), Measuring geographical mobility in regional labour market
monitoring state of the art and perspectives (pp. 29–40). München, Germany: Rainer
Hampp.
Beaverstock, J. V. (2002). Transnational elites in global cities. British expatriates in
Singapore’s financial district. Geoforum, 33, 525–538.
Beaverstock, J. V. (2005). Transnational elites in the city: British highly-skilled
inter-company transferees in New York city’s financial district. Journal of Ethnic
and Migration Studies, 31, 245–268.
Beaverstock, J. V., & Hall, S. (2012). Competing for talent: Global mobility, immigration and the city of London’s labour market. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy
and Society, 5, 271–287.
Berry, D. P., & Bell, M. P. (2012). ‘Expatriates’: Gender, race and class distinctions in
international management. Gender, Work and Organization, 19, 10–27.
Black, J. S. (1988). Work role transitions—A study of American expatriate managers
in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19, 277–294.
Buch, T., Torben, D. S., & Annekatrin, N. (2009). Cross-border commuting in the
Danish-German border region–Integration, institutions and cross-border interaction. Journal of Borderlands Studies, 24, 38–54.
Cantwell, B. (2011). Transnational mobility and international academic employment:
Gatekeeping in an academic competition arena. Minerva, 49, 425–445.
Cheng, L., & Yang, P. Q. (1998). Global interaction, global inequality, and migration of
the highly trained to the United States. International Migration Review, 32, 626–653.
Connelly, B. L. (2010). Transnational entrepreneurs, worldchanging entrepreneurs,
and ambassadors: A typology of the new breed of expatriates. The International
Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 6, 39–53.
Davila, A., & Mora, M. T. (2000). English skills, earnings, and the occupational sorting
of Mexican Americans working along the U.S.-Mexico border. International Migration Review, 34, 133–157.

8

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Decoville, A., Durand, F., Sohn, C., & Walther, O. J. (2010). Spatial integration in European cross-border metropolitan regions: A comparative approach. Luxembourg: CEPS.
Drori, I., Honig, B., & Wright, M. (2009). Transnational entrepreneurship: An emergent field of study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33, 1001–1022.
Faist, T. (2000). The volume and dynamics of international migration and transnational
social spaces. Oxford, England: Clarendon.
Fielding, A. (1993). Mass migration and economic restructuring. In R. King (Ed.),
Mass migration in Europe (pp. 7–18). London, England: Belhaven Press.
Goldring, L. (1997). Power and status in transnational social spaces. In L. Pries (Ed.),
Transnationale Migration. Soziale Welt Sonderband 12 (pp. 179–195). Baden-Baden,
Germany: Nomos.
Gottholmseder, G., & Theurl, E. (2007). Determinants of cross-border commuting:
Do cross-border commuters within the household matter? Journal of Borderlands
Studies, 22, 97–112.
Koser, K., & Salt, J. (1997). The geography of highly skilled international migration.
International Journal of Population Geography, 3, 285–303.
Kreutzer, F., & Roth, S. (2006). Transnationale Karrieren (transnational careers).
Wiesbaden, Germany: VS.
Lee, E. S. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, 3, 47–57.
Levitt, P., DeWind, J., & Vertovec, S. (2003). International perspectives on transnational migration. International Migration Review, 37, 565–575.
Lin, X., & Tao, S. (2012). Transnational entrepreneurs: Characteristics, drivers, and
success factors. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 10, 50–69.
Liu-Farrer, G. (2011). Making careers in the occupational niche: Chinese students in
corporate Japan’s transnational business. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies,
37, 785–803.
Martin, S., & Lowell, L. B. (2002). U.S. immigration policy. Admission of high skilled
workers. Georgetown Immigration Law Journal, 16, 619–636.
Massey, D. S., Goldring, L., & Durand, J. (1994). Continuities in transnational migration: An analysis of nineteen Mexican communities. American Journal of Sociology,
99, 1492–1533.
Mau, S., & Verwiebe, R. (2010). European societies. Mapping structure and change. Bristol, England: Policy Press.
Mollick, A. V., Rayas, C. A., & Moncisvais, O. R. (2006). Local labor markets in
U.S.-Mexican border cities and the impact of maquiladora production. Annals of
Regional Science, 40, 95–116.
Mora, M. T., & Davila, A. (2011). Cross-border earnings of U.S. natives along the
U.S.-Mexico bordern. Social Science Quarterly, 92, 850–874.
Peixoto, J. (2001). The international mobility of highly skilled workers in transnational corporations. International Migration Review, 35, 1030–1053.
Portes, A., Haller, W. J., & Guarnizo, L. E. (2002). Transnational entrepreneurs: An
alternative form of immigrant economic adaptation. American Sociological Review,
67, 278–298.

Transnational Work Careers

9

Pries, L. (2001). New transnational social spaces. London, England: Routledge.
Riddle, L., Hrivnak, G. A., & Nielsen, T. M. (2010). Transnational diaspora
entrepreneurship in emerging markets: Bridging institutional divides. Journal of
International Management, 16, 398–411.
Roos, H. (2013). In the rhythm of the global market: Female expatriates and mobile
careers: A case study of Indian ICT professionals on the move. Gender, Work and
Organization, 20, 147–159.
Salt, J. (1992). Migration processes amongst the highly skilled in Europe. International
Migration Review, 26, 484–505.
Schmitz, F., Drevon, G., & Gerber, P. (2012). Die Mobilität der in Luxemburg beschäftigten
Grenzgänger: Dynamik und Perspektiven. Luxembourg: CEPS/INSTEAD.
Stahl, G. K., Miller, E., & Tung, R. (2002). Toward the boundaryless career: A closer
look at the expatriate career concept and the perceived implications of an international assignment. Journal of World Business, 37, 216–227.
Stark, O. (1993). The migration of labor. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Stark, O., & Bloom, D. E. (1985). The new economics of labor migration. American
Economic Review, 75, 173–178.
Suutari, V., & Brewster, C. (2003). Repatriation: Empirical evidence from a longitudinal study of careers and expectations among Finnish expatriates. International
Journal of Human Resource Management, 14, 1132–1151.
Todaro, M. P. (1986). International migration, domestic unemployment, and urbanization.
New York, NY: Center for Policy Studies.
Tung, R. L. (1998). American expatriates abroad: From neophytes to cosmopolitans.
Journal of World Business, 33, 125–144.
Vertovec, S. (1999). Conceiving and researching transnationalism. Ethnic and Racial
Studies, 22, 447–462.
Verwiebe, R., & Reinprecht, C. (2012-15). Cross-border labour mobility, transnational
labour markets and social differentiation in the Central European region. Vienna, Austria:
Department of Sociology/University of Vienna.
Wimmer, A., & Glick Schiller, N. (2003). Methodological nationalism, the social sciences, and the study of migration: An essay in historical epistemology. International Migration Review, 37, 576–610.
Wong, L. L., & Ng, M. (2002). The emergence of small transnational enterprise in
Vancouver: The case of Chinese entrepreneur immigrants. International Journal of
Urban and Regional Research, 26, 508–530.
Yan, A. M., Zhu, G., & Hall, D. T. (2002). International assignments for career building: A model of agency relationships and psychological contracts. Academy of Management Review, 27, 373–391.

ROLAND VERWIEBE SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Roland Verwiebe is a Full Professor for Social Stratification
Research at the University Vienna.

10

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

RELATED ESSAYS
Global Economic Networks (Sociology), Nina Bandelj et al.
Globalization Backlash (Sociology), Mabel Berezin
Rent, Rent-Seeking, and Social Inequality (Sociology), Beth Red Bird and
David B. Grusky
Globalization: Consequences for Work and Employment in Advanced
Capitalist Societies (Sociology), Tony Elger
Global Income Inequality (Sociology), Glenn Firebaugh
Labor Market Instability, Labor Market Entry and Early Career Development
(Sociology), Michael Gebel
The Reorganization of Work (Sociology), Charles Heckscher
States and Nationalism (Anthropology), Michael Herzfeld
Technology Diffusion (Economics), Adam B. Jaffe
Maternal and Paternal Employment across the Life Course (Sociology),
Michaela Kreyenfeld
Visualizing Globalization (Sociology), Matthew C. Mahutga and Robert
Nash-Parker
Transformation of the Employment Relationship (Sociology), Arne L. Kalleberg and Peter V. Marsden
Organizations and the Production of Systemic Risk (Sociology), Charles
Perrow
Economics and Culture (Economics), Gérard Roland
How Do Labor Market Networks Work? (Sociology), Brian Rubineau and
Roberto M. Fernandez
Sociology of Entrepreneurship (Sociology), Martin Ruef
US Union and Workers’ Movements, Past and Future (Sociology), Daniel
Schneider and Judith Stepan-Norris
Popular Protest, Nationalism, and Domestic-International Linkages in
Chinese Politics (Political Science), Jessica Chen Weiss
Culture and Globalization (Sociology), Frederick F. Wherry



Transnational Work Careers
ROLAND VERWIEBE

Abstract
This essay deals with transnational work careers, an issue that is relatively new in
social-scientific research and is discussed here in particular against the background
of recent migration and management research. Both disciplines consider the emergence of transnational work careers in connection with economic globalization. In
terms of methodology, most of the studies that are relevant to this issue are based
on qualitatively oriented analyses and deal empirically with a variety of regions and
nations (e.g., China, India, the United States, Canada, Germany, and Scandinavia).

INTRODUCTION
In a strict sense, transnational work careers have been marginal topics in the
social sciences, with the particular exception of migration research and some
parts of management research (e.g., Cantwell, 2011; Kreutzer & Roth, 2006;
Liu-Farrer, 2011; Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002; Suutari & Brewster, 2003).
Traditionally, migration research deals with permanent shifts in one’s place
of residence. The main causes for migration, according to the literature, are
economic. The push-and-pull model—developed in the 1960s by American
researcher Everett Lee—was for many years drawn upon as a theoretical
explanation for this kind of migration (Lee, 1966).
Only in more recent years, since the mid-1990s, migration research started
to focus on transnational forms of migration (Faist, 2000; Goldring, 1997;
Levitt, DeWind, & Vertovec, 2003; Massey, Goldring, & Durand, 1994;
Pries, 2001; Vertovec, 1999; Wimmer & Glick Schiller, 2003). Studies on
this phenomenon locate such novel transnational forms of migration in
connection with global economic processes. Migration is argued no longer
to be exclusively characterized by permanent relocations of principal residences, as more recent research indicates: The beginning of the twenty-first
century has seen a diversification of the patterns and forms of migration. We
now observe an increase in temporal, short-term, circular migration and in
transnational and chain migration.
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.

1

2

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Considering the concept of transnational work careers in this connection,
this author would like to propose to give rise to yet other accentuations.
In general, an individual’s career can be understood as a sequence of
related jobs usually pursued within one economic sector or related sectors.
Transnational work careers would be careers that extend beyond countries’
frontiers. This may apply to various forms of occupational mobility, for
example, short-term professional activities in one’s employer’s branch
abroad, frequent work-related mobility, and business trips, as well as
transnational commuting and job-related mobility in border regions. Ultimately, the concept of transnational work careers implies that transnational
commuting becomes a normal aspect of people’s everyday professional and
social life. Transnational work careers then are not typically associated with
occupational reorientations or descent, quite the contrary. This is in contrast
to many migrants’ occupational careers and their frequently committing
themselves, within migration, to employment relationships that do not
correspond with their qualifications (Berry & Bell, 2012).
FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
MIGRATION
In order to understand transnational work careers, it is important to revert to
the core concepts of migration research. The “classic approach” to migration
acts on the assumption that the primary reasons for migration are to be
found in the economy. Furthermore, migration is seen to imply a permanent
shift in one’s place of residence and economic, social, and cultural integration/assimilation within the host society. The push-and-pull model is
particularly important in explaining these forms of migration. In this model,
it is commonly assumed that migrants follow the principle of economic rationalism, acting in response to push-and-pull factors. The key push-and-pull
factors relate to the situation in the employment market and attainable individual income, respectively, which in theory are inadequate in the migrants’
country of origin and considerably more attractive in their countries of
destination (Fielding, 1993; Stark, 1993; Stark & Bloom, 1985; Todaro, 1986).
In general, this model refers to economic gains from migration, as they are
perceived by migrants and included in their decision for migration, conceptualized as differences in wages, in working conditions or available fringe
benefits. Much of migration to the United States, Canada, and Australia
empirically corresponds to these model representations. Similar arguments
apply to intra-European migration between Mediterranean countries (e.g.,
Italy, Greece, Turkey) and highly industrialized countries in Central Europe
(e.g., Belgium, Germany, France) in the second half of the twentieth century.

Transnational Work Careers

3

TRANSNATIONAL MIGRATION
Recent investigations into the various aspects of transnational migration are
also to be seen as an important element of foundational research on transnational work careers. The point of departure for this work is the idea that
the traditional distinction between temporary and permanent migration no
longer applies to many migrants as they shuttle back and forth between their
new and old home countries. The lifeworld of these so-called transmigrants
spans a variety of both domiciles and social and geographic spaces. The central argument here is that mobility across national borders is closely associated with a far-reaching process of economic, cultural, political, and social
globalization (Pries, 2001). Thus, in this view, globally active enterprises, the
new communications technology, the Internet, and the global consumption
of mass media culture all weave a network of globalized transactions of information, goods, and people, which lead to new transnational spaces beyond
customary societies and social systems.
The typical trait of transmigrants is double integration in social, cultural,
and economic domains within divergent societies, rather than medium- or
long-term and complete assimilation in their host societies. The expansion
and increasingly low-priced availability of modern forms of telecommunication and the Internet (access to information, cost-saving communication in
real time), together with transnational social networks, are important motors
promoting such double integration.
HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION
Even though research on highly qualified migrants does not explicitly
broach the issue of transnational work careers—or if so, then marginally—it
remains an important link for the present issue. Over the past two decades,
a growing number of authors in migration research has explored migration
as a process among highly qualified individuals (Amit, 2002; Beaverstock,
2002, 2005; Cheng & Yang, 1998; Koser & Salt, 1997; Martin & Lowell, 2002;
Peixoto, 2001; Salt, 1992). These scholars have argued that important causes
of increasing migration of the highly skilled have been the boost in foreign
direct investment and the growth of multinational corporations. In this
logic, highly skilled migrants are crucial to the flows of knowledge and
capital movements of international corporations, as well as their economic
strategies and success. Beaverstock’s publications can be drawn upon as
one example of this kind of research (Beaverstock, 2002, 2005; Beaverstock
& Hall, 2012): This author studies highly skilled professionals circulating
within and between transnational corporations. Beaverstock describes this
specific group of transmigrants as important constituents of the global
economic system. His research suggests that these professionals’ individual

4

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

career paths and social and business networks, stretching across national
boundaries, are the key factors that (re-)produce traits of “transnationalism” in the global cities of postindustrial economies. Correspondingly,
Beaverstock also argues that the economic competitiveness of global cities
is substantially dependent on the functioning of their global labor markets,
of which a key factor is the influx of highly skilled migrants from various
regions of the world.
CUTTING-EDGE RESEARCH
Only in more recent years does the literature include studies that explore
transnational career patterns in the narrow sense of the term. Exemplarily,
this essay deals with three important keywords in the scope of the ongoing debate: We discuss research in cross-border labor markets/transnational
commuting, transnational entrepreneurs, and the so-called expatriates.
NEW EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ON TRANSNATIONAL COMMUTERS/CROSS-BORDER LABOR
MARKETS, TRANSNATIONAL ENTREPRENEURS, AND EXPATRIATES
The emergence of transnational, cross-border labor markets has become
a cutting-edge topic. A number of studies on various cross-border labor
markets and other forms of transnational labor markets have come to light
over the past decade. In Europe, cross-border labor markets in Luxembourg
(with commuters from Belgium, France, Germany), at the Dutch-German
border, at the Swiss-Italian border, or in the Austrian-Swiss-Bavarian region
have been investigated (Baruffini, 2011; Buch, Torben, & Annekatrin, 2009;
Decoville, Durand, Sohn, & Walther, 2010; Gottholmseder & Theurl, 2007;
Verwiebe & Reinprecht, 2012-15).1 Most scholars agree that an increase in the
numbers of transnational workers has to be seen in the context of the establishment of the European Union. A turning point was the implementation
of the Maastricht Treaty (1992), according to which all Member State citizens
became entitled to unrestricted mobility within the EU (Mau & Verwiebe,
2010: 266). The cross-border labor market between the United States and
Mexico is yet another example that has recently attracted much attention
(e.g., Alegria, 2002; Davila & Mora, 2000; Mollick, Rayas, & Moncisvais,
2006; Mora & Davila, 2011). Over the past 15 years, increasing cross-border
commerce, intensified economic integration, and the growth of the Mexican
manufacturing industry after the NAFTA treaty was concluded have created
1. The labor market in Luxembourg is an exemplary and interesting object of study in this context.
Each day, Luxembourg’s labor market draws 160,000 border crossers. This amounts to 50% of those
employed in that country’s labor market. For three decades, this phenomenon has been continuously
on the rise (e.g., in 1975, only 9% of those employed were cross-border commuters) and is now taking
place in a labor market region that spans four European countries (Schmitz, Drevon, & Gerber, 2012).

Transnational Work Careers

5

many new employment opportunities for workers on both sides of the
US-Mexico border. Most available studies deal with Mexican cross-border
commuters. In turn, Mora and Davila (2011) recently developed a different
focus while examining the income situation among the US-born population
residing in the United States and working on the Mexican side of the border.
Transnational entrepreneurs and their work careers is another cutting-edge
research issue (Connelly, 2010; Drori, Honig, & Wright, 2009; Lin & Tao, 2012;
Portes, Haller, & Guarnizo, 2002; Riddle, Hrivnak, & Nielsen, 2010; Wong &
Ng, 2002). For some of these transnational entrepreneurs, seeking business
opportunities is an important reason for their migration to another country in
the first place. Other transnational entrepreneurs may have had experiences
as expatriates in a transnational corporation or transnational NGO and established their own business using this expertise, thus giving their work career
a new direction. Most of the current studies on the topic elaborate on the
ways in which transnational entrepreneurs pursue new business ventures
while relying on economic, social, cultural, and institutional opportunities
that stem from dual locations. This is the primary mode of transnational economic activities that span the national business environments of more than
one country (e.g., the countries of migrants’ origin and residence).
Finally, the more recent literature concerned with the so-called expatriates
is also crucial for understanding transnational work careers. This essay has
focused on divergent issues (e.g., Berry & Bell, 2012; Black, 1988; Cantwell,
2011; Roos, 2013; Stahl et al., 2002; Suutari & Brewster, 2003; Tung, 1998; Yan,
Zhu, & Hall, 2002). Many studies explore the various implications of expatriate careers with regard to career advancement and personal development,
as well as their families’, spouses’, and children’s situations. Differences
are also discussed between various economic sectors and organizational
contexts. Yet, other studies focus on the long-term effects of expatriate career
episodes and analyze the employment and familial situation after they
return home. These investigations frequently emphasize that expatriates
perceive deficits in corporate career management and believe that their
organizations make insufficient use of their international experience.
KEY ISSUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
In an increasingly globalized world, it will prove to be a task for
social-scientific research to more systematically deal with transnational
work careers. We may identify several concrete challenges in terms of
research strategy.
An initial focus for future investigations could be placed on integrating the
various research perspectives and methodical and conceptual approaches.
Interdisciplinary projects are still the exception to the rule. At present,

6

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

transnational careers are dealt with in the framework of migration research
and management research. A promising approach would consist of systematically intertwining biographical analyses (migration research) and
analyses of organizational contexts (management research).
Similarly, in terms of methodology, expansion beyond the present status
of research is conceivable. Qualitative single-case studies focusing on one or
several enterprises are predominant, while large-scale quantitative investigations and internationally comparative investigations are exceptional cases.
Such studies would be particularly important to more fully understand the
various aspects of transnational work careers. For example, we may assume
that there are differences between transnational work careers in Eastern
Africa and Southeast Asia, or the United States and Europe. However, we
still poorly understand in what ways these differences persist and what
magnitude they may assume.
This author suggests that the largest challenge by far is the more systematic
application of biographical designs, life-course methods, and panel designs.
Turning to such novel methods of collecting data would serve to generate
a class of insights that is rare in this form. Initial studies working with a
panel design (e.g., Suutari & Brewster, 2003) have indicated the associated
potential. Little is known as yet about the entire life courses of transnationally mobile individuals, as research is dominated by studies that concentrate
on singular life-course episodes.
Thematically—and admittedly formulated in sharp terms—research
is required to exceed the prevalent focus on highly skilled middle-aged
white men. We still know little about transnational work careers of individuals with medium-level qualifications. Recent research on cross-border
commuters indeed indicates the presence of such groups, for example,
in the Austrian-Slovakian-Hungarian region or in the US-Mexico border
region. Another research desideratum to be addressed is a more systematic
investigation of the specific conditions governing women’s transnational
work careers. Finally, we still have much to learn about transnational work
careers between African countries and Latin American societies.
SUMMARY
Transnational work careers can be understood in terms of sequences of
related jobs pursued within one economic sector or related sectors across
national boundaries. The concept of transnational work careers implies that
transnational mobility may become a normal component of migrants’ occupational life and social lifeworld. Job-related episodes abroad are a part of
occupational biographies and thus temporary by definition. Such episodes
can be realized in various economic sectors, including industrial production,

Transnational Work Careers

7

various areas of the financial and other services sectors, NGOs, research
institutions, and universities. Transnational work careers are expected
to expand even further than today, motored by continuous processes of
globalization and transnational processes of integration in Europe, Asia,
Africa, and the Americas.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Alegria, T. (2002). Demand and supply of Mexican cross border workers. Journal of
Borderlands Studies, 17, 37–55.
Amit, V. (2002). The moving ‘Expert’. A study of mobile professionals in the Cayman Islands and North America. In N. N. Sørensen & K. F. Olwig (Eds.), Work and
migration. Life and livelihoods in a globalizing world (pp. 145–160). London, England:
Routledge.
Baruffini, M. (2011). Cross-border commuting in the Swiss-Italian region; labour market effects of progressive integration. In R. H. Christa Larsen, A. Schmid, M. Bittner & F. Clément (Eds.), Measuring geographical mobility in regional labour market
monitoring state of the art and perspectives (pp. 29–40). München, Germany: Rainer
Hampp.
Beaverstock, J. V. (2002). Transnational elites in global cities. British expatriates in
Singapore’s financial district. Geoforum, 33, 525–538.
Beaverstock, J. V. (2005). Transnational elites in the city: British highly-skilled
inter-company transferees in New York city’s financial district. Journal of Ethnic
and Migration Studies, 31, 245–268.
Beaverstock, J. V., & Hall, S. (2012). Competing for talent: Global mobility, immigration and the city of London’s labour market. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy
and Society, 5, 271–287.
Berry, D. P., & Bell, M. P. (2012). ‘Expatriates’: Gender, race and class distinctions in
international management. Gender, Work and Organization, 19, 10–27.
Black, J. S. (1988). Work role transitions—A study of American expatriate managers
in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19, 277–294.
Buch, T., Torben, D. S., & Annekatrin, N. (2009). Cross-border commuting in the
Danish-German border region–Integration, institutions and cross-border interaction. Journal of Borderlands Studies, 24, 38–54.
Cantwell, B. (2011). Transnational mobility and international academic employment:
Gatekeeping in an academic competition arena. Minerva, 49, 425–445.
Cheng, L., & Yang, P. Q. (1998). Global interaction, global inequality, and migration of
the highly trained to the United States. International Migration Review, 32, 626–653.
Connelly, B. L. (2010). Transnational entrepreneurs, worldchanging entrepreneurs,
and ambassadors: A typology of the new breed of expatriates. The International
Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 6, 39–53.
Davila, A., & Mora, M. T. (2000). English skills, earnings, and the occupational sorting
of Mexican Americans working along the U.S.-Mexico border. International Migration Review, 34, 133–157.

8

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Decoville, A., Durand, F., Sohn, C., & Walther, O. J. (2010). Spatial integration in European cross-border metropolitan regions: A comparative approach. Luxembourg: CEPS.
Drori, I., Honig, B., & Wright, M. (2009). Transnational entrepreneurship: An emergent field of study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33, 1001–1022.
Faist, T. (2000). The volume and dynamics of international migration and transnational
social spaces. Oxford, England: Clarendon.
Fielding, A. (1993). Mass migration and economic restructuring. In R. King (Ed.),
Mass migration in Europe (pp. 7–18). London, England: Belhaven Press.
Goldring, L. (1997). Power and status in transnational social spaces. In L. Pries (Ed.),
Transnationale Migration. Soziale Welt Sonderband 12 (pp. 179–195). Baden-Baden,
Germany: Nomos.
Gottholmseder, G., & Theurl, E. (2007). Determinants of cross-border commuting:
Do cross-border commuters within the household matter? Journal of Borderlands
Studies, 22, 97–112.
Koser, K., & Salt, J. (1997). The geography of highly skilled international migration.
International Journal of Population Geography, 3, 285–303.
Kreutzer, F., & Roth, S. (2006). Transnationale Karrieren (transnational careers).
Wiesbaden, Germany: VS.
Lee, E. S. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, 3, 47–57.
Levitt, P., DeWind, J., & Vertovec, S. (2003). International perspectives on transnational migration. International Migration Review, 37, 565–575.
Lin, X., & Tao, S. (2012). Transnational entrepreneurs: Characteristics, drivers, and
success factors. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 10, 50–69.
Liu-Farrer, G. (2011). Making careers in the occupational niche: Chinese students in
corporate Japan’s transnational business. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies,
37, 785–803.
Martin, S., & Lowell, L. B. (2002). U.S. immigration policy. Admission of high skilled
workers. Georgetown Immigration Law Journal, 16, 619–636.
Massey, D. S., Goldring, L., & Durand, J. (1994). Continuities in transnational migration: An analysis of nineteen Mexican communities. American Journal of Sociology,
99, 1492–1533.
Mau, S., & Verwiebe, R. (2010). European societies. Mapping structure and change. Bristol, England: Policy Press.
Mollick, A. V., Rayas, C. A., & Moncisvais, O. R. (2006). Local labor markets in
U.S.-Mexican border cities and the impact of maquiladora production. Annals of
Regional Science, 40, 95–116.
Mora, M. T., & Davila, A. (2011). Cross-border earnings of U.S. natives along the
U.S.-Mexico bordern. Social Science Quarterly, 92, 850–874.
Peixoto, J. (2001). The international mobility of highly skilled workers in transnational corporations. International Migration Review, 35, 1030–1053.
Portes, A., Haller, W. J., & Guarnizo, L. E. (2002). Transnational entrepreneurs: An
alternative form of immigrant economic adaptation. American Sociological Review,
67, 278–298.

Transnational Work Careers

9

Pries, L. (2001). New transnational social spaces. London, England: Routledge.
Riddle, L., Hrivnak, G. A., & Nielsen, T. M. (2010). Transnational diaspora
entrepreneurship in emerging markets: Bridging institutional divides. Journal of
International Management, 16, 398–411.
Roos, H. (2013). In the rhythm of the global market: Female expatriates and mobile
careers: A case study of Indian ICT professionals on the move. Gender, Work and
Organization, 20, 147–159.
Salt, J. (1992). Migration processes amongst the highly skilled in Europe. International
Migration Review, 26, 484–505.
Schmitz, F., Drevon, G., & Gerber, P. (2012). Die Mobilität der in Luxemburg beschäftigten
Grenzgänger: Dynamik und Perspektiven. Luxembourg: CEPS/INSTEAD.
Stahl, G. K., Miller, E., & Tung, R. (2002). Toward the boundaryless career: A closer
look at the expatriate career concept and the perceived implications of an international assignment. Journal of World Business, 37, 216–227.
Stark, O. (1993). The migration of labor. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Stark, O., & Bloom, D. E. (1985). The new economics of labor migration. American
Economic Review, 75, 173–178.
Suutari, V., & Brewster, C. (2003). Repatriation: Empirical evidence from a longitudinal study of careers and expectations among Finnish expatriates. International
Journal of Human Resource Management, 14, 1132–1151.
Todaro, M. P. (1986). International migration, domestic unemployment, and urbanization.
New York, NY: Center for Policy Studies.
Tung, R. L. (1998). American expatriates abroad: From neophytes to cosmopolitans.
Journal of World Business, 33, 125–144.
Vertovec, S. (1999). Conceiving and researching transnationalism. Ethnic and Racial
Studies, 22, 447–462.
Verwiebe, R., & Reinprecht, C. (2012-15). Cross-border labour mobility, transnational
labour markets and social differentiation in the Central European region. Vienna, Austria:
Department of Sociology/University of Vienna.
Wimmer, A., & Glick Schiller, N. (2003). Methodological nationalism, the social sciences, and the study of migration: An essay in historical epistemology. International Migration Review, 37, 576–610.
Wong, L. L., & Ng, M. (2002). The emergence of small transnational enterprise in
Vancouver: The case of Chinese entrepreneur immigrants. International Journal of
Urban and Regional Research, 26, 508–530.
Yan, A. M., Zhu, G., & Hall, D. T. (2002). International assignments for career building: A model of agency relationships and psychological contracts. Academy of Management Review, 27, 373–391.

ROLAND VERWIEBE SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Roland Verwiebe is a Full Professor for Social Stratification
Research at the University Vienna.

10

EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

RELATED ESSAYS
Global Economic Networks (Sociology), Nina Bandelj et al.
Globalization Backlash (Sociology), Mabel Berezin
Rent, Rent-Seeking, and Social Inequality (Sociology), Beth Red Bird and
David B. Grusky
Globalization: Consequences for Work and Employment in Advanced
Capitalist Societies (Sociology), Tony Elger
Global Income Inequality (Sociology), Glenn Firebaugh
Labor Market Instability, Labor Market Entry and Early Career Development
(Sociology), Michael Gebel
The Reorganization of Work (Sociology), Charles Heckscher
States and Nationalism (Anthropology), Michael Herzfeld
Technology Diffusion (Economics), Adam B. Jaffe
Maternal and Paternal Employment across the Life Course (Sociology),
Michaela Kreyenfeld
Visualizing Globalization (Sociology), Matthew C. Mahutga and Robert
Nash-Parker
Transformation of the Employment Relationship (Sociology), Arne L. Kalleberg and Peter V. Marsden
Organizations and the Production of Systemic Risk (Sociology), Charles
Perrow
Economics and Culture (Economics), Gérard Roland
How Do Labor Market Networks Work? (Sociology), Brian Rubineau and
Roberto M. Fernandez
Sociology of Entrepreneurship (Sociology), Martin Ruef
US Union and Workers’ Movements, Past and Future (Sociology), Daniel
Schneider and Judith Stepan-Norris
Popular Protest, Nationalism, and Domestic-International Linkages in
Chinese Politics (Political Science), Jessica Chen Weiss
Culture and Globalization (Sociology), Frederick F. Wherry